THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

BEQUEST  OF 

Alice  R.  Hilgard 


The  3turat  Scimce  Series 

EDITED   BY   L.  H.  BATLEY 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF 
VEGETABLE  - GARDENING 


The  Plural  Sriznrs  juries 

:     THE  SOIL. 

THE  SPRAYING  OP  PLANTS. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT-GROWING. 

BUSH-FRUITS. 

FERTILIZERS. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE. 

THE  FARMSTEAD. 

RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
VEGETABLE  -  GARDENING 


BY 


L.    H.  ^BAILEY 


gotfe 

THE     MACMILLAN     COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1901 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,    1901 
BY    L.    H.    BAILEY 


GIFT 

-|   ,   fdUT 


r$ount    J 

J.  HORACE  MCFARLAKD  COMPANY 

HARRISBURQ  •  PENNSYLVANIA 


CONTENTS 

PART    I 

GENERAL     VIEW 
CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

THE  LAY-OUT  OF  THE  PLANTATION 1-43 

1.  The  Ideals  in  Vegetable-Gardening 3 

'2.  The  Geography  of  Vegetable -Gardening 6 

3.  The  Extent  of  Vegetable -Gardening ' .    12 

4.  Equipment  and  Capital 19 

5.  The  Home  Garden 31 

CHAPTER  II 

GLASS 44-79 

1.  Quantity  and  Cost  of  Glass  Required 45 

1.  The  Making  of  Frames 50 

3.  Hotbeds 54 

4.  Coldframes  and  Forcing- hills 67 

5.  The  Management  of  Frames 72 

CHAPTER   III 
THE  SOIL  AND  ITS  TREATMENT .  80-106 

1.  The  Amelioration  of  the  Land 85 

2.  The  Fertilizing  of  the  Land 94 

(v) 

M88681O 


vi  Contents 

CHAPTER  IV 

PAGES 

VEGETABLE- GARDENING  TOOLS 107-121 

CHAPTER    V 

SEEDS  AND  SEEDAGE ; 122-171 

1 .  The  Longevity  of  Seeds  .    .    .    .    .    .    .  .  *    ...    .    .   .    .    .  122 

2.  Preservation  of  Seeds 141 

3.  Testing  of  Seeds 143 

4.  The  Sowing  of  Seeds 155 

5.  The  Growing  of  Seeds 165 

CHAPTER    VI 

SUBSEQUENT  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  VEGETABLE -GARDEN  .    .  172-213 

1.  Irrigation 173 

2.  Double-Cropping 181 

3.  Transplanting 187 

4.  Choosing  the  Varieties 194 

5.  Weeds .    .• 196 

6.  Insects  and  Fungi 199 

CHAPTER    VII  . 

MARKETING  AND  STORING 214-235 

1.  Packing 215 

2.  Storing 224 


Contents  yii 


PART    II 
VEGETABLE-GARDENING    CROPS 

CHAPTER  VIII 

PAGES 

INTRODUCTORY  DISCUSSION .   .   .' 237-270 

1.  Classification  of  Crops  ................  238 

2.  Books 242 

CHAPTER   IX 

ROOT  CROPS 271-300 

Radish 273 

Beet  .../......   .   .   .....   .   .   .   .   .   .-.    .  277 

Carrot 281 

Turnip-rooted  Chervil ." 284 

Turnip ."...'....  285 

Rutabaga . 288 

Parsnip 288 

Salsify 291 

Scorzonera,  or  Black  Salsify 292 

Scolymus,  or  Spanish  Salsify 293 

Horse-radish 294 

CHAPTER  X 

TUBER  CROPS    .   .  *. 301-313 

Potato 301 

Swe«t  Potato  .  .  310 


viii  Contents 

CHAPTER  XI 

PAGES 

BULB  CROPS ..'...-!...........  314-328 

Onion 316 

CHAPTER  XII 

COLE  CROPS 329-346 

Cabbage * 329 

Kale  or  Borecole 339 

Brussels  Sprouts 340 

Cauliflower 341 

Kohlrabi 343 

CHAPTER   XIII 

POT-HERB  CROPS 347-355 

Spinach 347 

Other  Greens 351 

CHAPTER  XIV 

SALAD  CROPS 356-379 

Lettuce 357 

Endive 361 

Chicory 363 

Cress '# 365 

Corn  Salad .   .  „ 367 

Parsley 368 

Salad  Chervil • 369 

Celery 370 

Celeriac  .  .  379 


Contents  ix 

CHAPTER  XV 

PAGES 

PULSE  CROPS 380-391 

Pea 380 

Beans  .    .    .    .    : 383 

CHAPTER  XVI 

SOLANAOEOUS  CROPS 392-410 

Tomato •'. 392 

Eggplant 403 

Pepper 408 

Husk  Tomato 409 

CHAPTER   XVII 

CUCURBITOUS  CROPS 411-422 

Cucumber  and  Gherkin ...,..»..  414 

Muskmelon 416 

Watermelon 417 

Pumpkin  and  Squash • 420 

Other  Cucurbits .'  .    . 422 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

SWEET  CORN.    OKRA.    MARTYNIA 423-428 

Sweet  Corn 423 

Okra  or  Gumbo 427 

Martynia 428 

CHAPTER   XIX 

CONDIMENTAL   AND   SWEET   HERBS 429-432 


i  Contents 

CHAPTER  XX 

PAGES 

PERENNIAL  CROPS .  433-450 

Asparagus 433 

Ehubarb  or  Pie-plant 441 

Docks  and    Sorrels 445 

Artichoke 446 

Sea-Kale 449 

INDEX   .  .  451-458 


THE    PRINCIPLES   OF  VEGETABLE - 
GARDENING 

PAET  I—GENEEAL   VIEW 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  LAY-OUT  OF  THE   PLANTATION 

VEGETABLE -GARDENING,  or  olericulture,  is  the  art 
and  business  of  raising  kitchen -garden  vegetables,  and 
the  applications  of  the  various  sciences  thereto.  The 
term  kitchen -garden  vegetable,  or  "vegetable"  in  the 
gardener's  sense,  is  impossible  of  definition.  It  is 
approximately  true  to  say  that  the  term  applies  to  the 
edible  part  of  an  annual  or  at  least  an  herbaceous 
plant.  Vegetables  are  not  often  used  in  the  dessert, 
and  therefore  belong  more  properly  to  the  kitchen  than 
do  the  fruits.  There  is  exception  to  this  in  the  melon; 
and  it  is  significant  that  this  is  often  included 
with  the  fruits  by  European  writers.  The  only  com- 
plete idea  of  the  use  of  the  term  is  to  be  obtained 
from  a  detailed  catalogue  of  the  products  which  are 
called  vegetables,  and  this  inventory  will  be  found  on 
a  later  page  ;  in  the  meantime,  it  may  be  well  to  say 
that  leading  vegetables  are  potatoes,  cabbages,  onions, 

A  (l) 


2  The  Principles  of  Vegetable -Gardening 

tomatoes,  asparagus,  peas,  beans,  cucumbers,  squashes, 
celery,  lettuce. 

Market -gardening  is  the  growing  of  vegetables  for 
sale.  The  American  term  truck -gardening  is  really 
synonymous,  although  it  is  sometimes  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  larger  market -garden  ing  enterprises.  An 
arbitrary  distinction  between  market -gardening  and 
truck -gardening  was  made  by  J.  H.  Hale  in  the  work 
for  the  Eleventh  Census.  In  Bulletin  41  of  the  Census 
Bureau,  truck -gardening  is  understood  as  the  business 
"carried  on  in  favored  localities  at  a  distance  from 
market,  water  and  rail  transportation  being  necessary," 
while  market -gardening  is  "conducted  near  local  mar- 
kets, the  grower  of  vegetables  using  his  own  team  for 
transporting  his  products  direct  to  either  the  retailer 
or  consumer."  This  distinction  is  not  a  fundamental 
one,  and  is  not  the  general  understanding  of  the 
terms ;  but  it  seemed  to  be  necessary,  for  statistical 
reasons,  to  make  the  separation. 

By  common  consent,  the  whole  subject  of  vegetable- 
gardening  is  considered  to  belong  to  that  part  of  hus- 
bandry known  as  horticulture.  In  its  smaller  and 
intenser  applications,  it  is  unquestionably  horticulture, 
for  it  is  gardening ;  but  in  its  larger  and  looser 
applications,  as  in  the  field  culture  of  squashes  and 
tomatoes,  it  is  quite  as  properly  agriculture.  The  sweet 
potato  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  horticultural  crop, 
particularly  in  the  North,  but  the  Irish  or  round  potato 
is  generally  regarded  as  a  farm  crop.  Sweet  corn  is  a 
horticultural  crop,  whereas  other  corn  is  not.  These 
examples  show  that  the  demarcation  between  agricul- 


Ideals  in  Vegetable -Gardening  3 

ture  and  horticulture  is  an  arbitrary  line.  The  boun- 
dary is  determined  almost  wholly  by  custom.  It  is 
scarcely  worth  while  to  attempt  to  trace  it. 

1.    THE    IDEALS    IN   VEGETABLE  -  GARDENING 

The  success  of  any  business  depends  largely  on 
the  clearness  with  which  its  promoter  conceives  of  the 
aims  and  purposes  which  he  is  to  attain.  Many  persons 
grow  crops  because  their  fathers  grew  them,  because 
they  know  how  to  grow  them,  or  because  the  land  and 
locality  are  adapted  to  them.  This  is  well;  but  it  is 
better  if  the  grower  can  also  picture  to  himself  the  des- 
tination of  the  crops  which  he  is  to  raise.  That  is,  he 
should  grow  a  crop  for  a  distinct  purpose.  Good  farm- 
ing, like  any  other  business,  is  primarily  a  matter  of 
ideals. 

There  are  two  great  types  of  vegetable -growing, — 
growing  for  home  use,  and  growing  for  market  or  com- 
mercial profit.  Leaving  aside  for  the  instant  the  special 
subject  of  home -gardening,  we  may  observe  that  mar- 
ket-gardening is  itself  of  two  categories, —  that  which 
grows  products  for  the  common  and  general  markets, 
and  that  which  grows  them  for  particular  or  special 
markets.  In  the  former,  the  products  compete  with 
other  like  products  in  the  open  market;  they  take  their 
chances.  In  the  latter,  the  products  are  taken  to  some 
special  customer,  and  are  thereby  removed  from  general 
competition.  In  the  former  business, — which  is  gener- 
ally known  as  market-gardening  proper, — by  far  the 
greater  effort  is  devoted  to  the  growing  of  the  crops 


4  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

and  in  securing  them  at  such  seasons  that  they  contend 
with  the  least  competition.  The  chief  skill  required  is 
that  of  the  vegetable -grower;  for  the  business  of  mar- 
keting is  delegated.  In  the  latter  business,  much  effort 
must  be  given  to  the  hunting  out  of  special  customers 
and  markets:  here  the  skill  of  the  marketman  is  nearly 
as  important  as  the  skill  of  the  vegetable -grower. 

The  growing  of  vegetables  for  home  use  requires 
different  abilities  than  the  growing  for  market.  Here 
quality  and  a  uniform  and  constant  supply  are  the 
desiderata;  in  the  market  growing,  quantity  and  attrac- 
tiveness, and  a  bountiful  supply  at  stated  times  or  sea- 
sons, are  the  desiderata.  The  home -use  garden  should 
receive  the  more  minute  and  skilful  care  to  develop  the 
utmost  excellence  in  the  product.  The  more  discrimi- 
nating the  home,  the  greater  is  the  skill  required  of  the 
gardener.  There  is  as  much  skill  required  in  securing 
a  well -grown  melon  or  cauliflower  as  in  raising  a  violet 
or  chrysanthemum. 

Vegetable -gardening  for  money  is  not  an  easy  busi- 
ness. In  fact,  nothing  is  easy  if  it  is  worth  the  having. 
The  competition  is  great.  The  margin  of  profit  is  small. 
There  are  risks  incident  to  season,  diseases,  insects,  glut 
in  markets.  Many  of  the  products  are  quickly  perish- 
able. Quality  generally  counts  for  less  in  vegetables 
than  in  fruits.  Most  vegetables  are  culinary  subjects, 
not  luxuries;  and  the  prices  are  therefore  not  high. 
Nearly  every  person  who  has  a  bit  of  ground  grows  a 
few  vegetables.  In  most  cases,  earliness  of  crop  is  a 
prime  requisite ;  and  to  secure  the  crop  very  early 
requires  the  closest  attention  to  all  the  details  of  the 


The   Plant -Grower   and   the   Marketman  5 

plant -growing.  One  must  often  find  a  personal  cus- 
tomer; and  this  customer  rarely  takes  pains  to  wait  for 
the  produce  of  one  grower  or  to  search  for  it  in  the 
market,  for  the  supply  of  vegetables  is  usually  great: 
consequently,  the  small  grower  may  have  to  peddle  his 
vegetables.  In  most  cases,  the  market -gardener  must 
keep  long  hours  and  must  work  hard.  He  must  not 
expect  great  reward  the  first  year  or  two  on  a  new  place. 
He  must  learn  his  soil,  market  and  climate.  If  he  is  a 
good  plant -grower  and  a  good  business  man,  he  will 
succeed.  If  he  is  only  a  plant  -  grower,  he  will  probably 
be  a  slave  to  -the  marketman. 

There  are  many  market -gardeners  who  make  great 
profits  from  given  pieces  of  land,  but  they  are  usually 
old  hands  at  the  business,  and  they  do  not  make  equal 
profits  every  year  or  on  every  acre.  They  know  the 
markets  thoroughly.  In  particular  cases,  when  com- 
petition is  not  severe,  ample  rewards  may  come  easily  to 
the  novice;  but  these  are  the  exceptions.  A  special 
crop  well  grown,  or  produced  much  ahead  of  the  normal 
season  or  much  behind  it,  may  turn  a  handsome  profit. 
Glass -grown  products  often  bring  fancy  prices;  but  the 
risks  are  also  great.  Some  of  the  best  locations  for 
small  market  -  gardens  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  small 
cities,  where  competition  is  likely  to  be  less  severe  than 
in  the  great  markets,  and  where  the  grower  may  deal 
directly  with  the  consumer.  The  man  who  has  a  large 
area,  and  sufficient  capital  to  run  it  effectively,  can 
dictate  to  the  market,  and  can  grow  sufficient  stuff 
to  bring  a  fair  reward  even  at  very  close  margins. 
Prices  are  less  than  they  were  a  few  years  ago,  and 


6  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

there    is    no    prospect    of    any    important    permanent 
increase. 

The  person  who  likes  the  business,  and  who  goes 
into  it  with  a  full  appreciation  of  all  the  difficulties  and 
discouragements,  will  almost  surely  succeed.  To  such 
person,  it  is  a  most  attractive  business,  for  the  returns 
are  quick;  and  it  is  inexpressible  delight  to  bring  forth 
a  satisfactory  product  at  the  exact  time  when  it  is 
wanted.  A  good  vegetable -garden  is  a  perennial  satis- 
faction. 

2.  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  VEGETABLE -GARDENING 

There  is  a  market -gardening  center  or  area  in  prox- 
imity to  every  large  city.  The  market  determines  the 
location  of  the  business. 

There  are  certain  regions,  however,  which  are  so 
well  adapted  by  nature  for  the  business  of  vegetable- 
growing,  that  they  have  become  market -garden  centers 
despite  great  distance  from  market;  but  they  all  have 
easy  access  to  market,  either  by  rail  or  water.  They 
are  in  proximity  to  trunk  lines  of  railroad  or  steamship 
ports.  There  are  two  natural  factors  which  determine 
the  location  .of  these  gardening  centers, —  climate  and 
soil.  These  centers  are  in  climates  which  are  milder 
than  those  in  which  the  chief  markets  are  located.  They 
are  able  to  grow  early  crops;  for  earliness  is  usually 
essential  to  success  in  market -gardening.  These  cen- 
ters are  in  sandy  or  light -soil  areas.  Such  lands  are 
early,  easy  to  work,  and  respond  quickly  to  fertilizers, 
tillage  and  other  treatment. 


Fig.  1.    Showing  the  trucking  centers  of  Georgia.    By  Professor  Starnes. 
Shaded  areas  are  devoted  to  general  trucking;  dotted  areas  to  watermelons. 


8  The  Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Compared  with  the  total  cultivable  area,  the  acreage 
of  the  vegetable -gardening  districts  is  small,  and  it  is 
usually  scattered.  Even  the  extensive  vegetable -grow- 
ing of  the  South,  which  the  northern  grower  often  fears 
so  much,  looks  small  when  it  is  platted  on  a  map.  The 
accompanying  maps  illustrate  these  statements,  and 
suggest  that  there  is  almost  unlimited  opportunity  for 
geographical  expansion  of  the  business.  Fig.  1  shows 
the  parts  of  Georgia  in  which  vegetable  -  gardening 
centers  have  been  developed.  The  areas  of  oblique  line 
shading  (seen  near  the  coast,  at  Augusta  on  the  Savan- 
nah river,  and  in  the  extreme  northwestern  part)  rep- 
resent the  general  trucking  centers  growing  produce  for 
the  northern  markets.  The  dotted  areas  show  the  melon 
regions.  Fig.  2  shows  the  regions  in  Florida  from 
which  the  vegetables  are  shipped  (in  the  months  speci- 
fied) to  the  northern  markets.  In  Alabama,  the  only 
important  trucking  region  is  tributary  to  Mobile, 
although  there  are  developing  points  along  some  of 
the  lines  of  railroad. 

Vegetable -gardening  areas  to  supply  the  central  and 
northern  markets  of  the  Mississippi  valley  are  indicated 
for  me  as  follows,  by  P.  M.  Kiely,  St.  Louis:  "The 
largest  shipping  point  in  the  South  for  vegetables  is 
Crystal  Springs,  Miss.  Solid  trains  daily  out  of  there 
are  no  unusual  sight  during  the  shipping  season,  largely 
tomatoes,  however.  On  the  same  road  (I.  C.  E.  R.), 
and  not  far  from  there,  are  Terry,  Gallman,  Hazelhurst; 
further  down,  in  Louisiana,  devoted  mainly  to  straw- 
berries, are  Independence,  Amite  City,  Hammond,  Tick- 
faw,  etc.  However,  New  Orleans  in  spring,  and,  in 


Trucking    Centers 


p  A  S  C  I 


Fig.  2. 
Trucking  centers  of 

Florida. 
By  Professor  Rolfs. 


fact,  all  during  the 
winter,  ships  far  more 
than  any  other  section 
in  the  South.  She  is 
now  flooding  the  large 
markets,  not  only  in 

the  West,  but  extend-  \\     ±DE    SOTO 

ing  far  into  the  East, 
embracing    Buffalo, 
and,  no  doubt,  Phila- 
delphia, New  York  and  Boston 
to  some  extent,  with  all  kinds 
of  early  vegetables.     New  Or- 
leans,  embracing    many   miles 
of  truck  patches  in  its  vicinity,  has  made 
this  a  great  industry,  although  the  profits 
are  being  steadily  reduced.     It  is  favored 
to  a   surprising  extent   in   the   matter   of  .* 

express  rates  to  all  the  principal  markets,  nearly  all 
such  goods  going  out  by  express.  Most  of  the  goods 
are  packed  in  sugar  barrels  and  iced,  and  the  express 


\ 


10  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

charges  are  so  small  that  they  do  not  cut  away  a  large 
portion  of  the  proceeds,  as  is  usually  the  case  when 
shipping  long  distances  by  express.  Mobile,  Ala.,  is 
doing  a  good  deal  in  this  way,  to  which  might  be 
added  fifteen  or  twenty  stations  along  the  Mobile  & 
Ohio  railroad  running  northward  in  Alabama  and 
Mississippi. 

"Our  market  is  next  interested  in  Texas  territory. 
Jacksonville  and  Tyler  are  perhaps  the  two  leading 
points,  and  have  been  for  years,  although  more  fruits 
than  vegetables  are  raised  there.  Alvin,  Texas,  has 
become  a  great  strawberry  section,  and  some  area  has 
also  been  devoted  to  vegetables  in  that  and  nearby 
shipping  points.  Vegetable -growing  has  also  come  to 
the  front  in  a  very  prominent  way  far  down  on  the 
Gulf  coast,  at  Corpus  Christi  and  Rockport,  and  a 
number  of  intervening  points  between  there  and  Gal- 
veston.  The  territory  between  Houston  and  Galveston 
also  discloses  a  great  many  pear  orchards,  vegetable 
fields  and  strawberry  patches.  In  fact,  the  industry 
in  those  parts  is  growing  very  rapidly.  Western  Ar- 
kansas, with  Van  Buren  as  a  center,  will  control,  ship 
and  distribute  this  coming  season  (1899)  through  one 
man,  who  will  manage  the  distribution  of  crops  for 
some  twelve  or  fifteen  different  organizations  in  that 
section.  Over  400  car  loads  strawberries,  nearly  500 
cars  cantaloupes,  and  at  least  500  cars  Irish  potatoes, 
together  with  several  hundred  cars  of  miscellaneous 
stuff,  at  least  1,500  cars  in  all,  will  be  shipped  from 
this  section.  Jacksonville,  Texas,  is  the  leading  dis- 
tributing and  growing  point  in  that  section  of  the 


Trucking   Districts  11 

state,  and  will  do  similar  work  for  the  different  asso- 
ciations in  that  line.  It  will  probably  ship  over  500 
cars  tomatoes  and  at  least  500  cars  cantaloupes  and 
melons,  also  500  to  600  cars  Irish  potatoes." 

The  foregoing  figures  and  geographical  data  are 
given  only  as  illustrations  of  how  widely  scattered,  far 
removed  and  relatively  small  are  the  truck -garden  ing 
centers  which  supply  many  of  the  great  markets.  It  is 
no  part  of  the  purpose  to  show  all  the  centers,  nor 
necessarily  even  the  most  important  ones.  A  complete 
survey  of  the  subject  from  that  point  of  view  would 
require  a  volume. 

To  facilitate  statistical  study,  the  Eleventh  Census 
divided  the  United  States  into  twelve  great  sections  or 
districts : 

1.  New  England  district:     The  field  crops  supplying  Boston 
and  other  New  England  cities,  and  the  greenhouse  products  sup- 
plying all  the  large  cities  of  the  east. 

2.  New  York  and   Philadelphia  district  :     New  York    state, 
Long   Island,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  which  contributes 
largely  to  the  New  York  and  Philadelphia  markets. 

3.  Peninsular    district  :      Delaware    and    the    eastern    shore 
counties  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  which  supplies  all  the  north- 
ern and  some  of  the  central  west  markets. 

4.  Norfolk  district:    Eight  southeastern  counties  of  Virginia 
and  eight  northeastern  counties  of  North  Carolina,  which  largely 
supplies  northeastern  and  central  western  markets. 

5.  Baltimore  district:     Western  Maryland,  West  Virginia  and 
that  part  of  Virginia  not  in  the  peninsular  and  Norfolk  districts, 
largely  tributary  to  Baltimore,  .Washington  and  northern  cities, 
as  well  as  local  canning  factories. 

6.  South  Atlantic  district :     North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia  and  Florida,  supplying  northern  markets,  east  and  west. 

7.  Mississippi  Valley  district :     Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisi- 


12  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

ana,  Tennessee   and    Kentucky,   tributary   to    north    central    and 
northwestern  cities. 

8.  Southwest  district:     Texas,  Arkansas,  Missouri  and  Kan- 
sas, largely  tributary  to  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City. 

9.  Central  district:     Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Iowa  and  Nebraska. 

10.  Northwest  district:     Minnesota,  North  Dakota  and  South 
Dakota. 

11.  Mountain    district  :     Idaho,    Wyoming,    Utah,    Nevada, 
Colorado,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

12.  Pacific  Coast  district :    California,  Oregon  and  Washington. 


3.  THE  EXTENT  OF  VEGETABLE  -  GARDENING 

There  are  no  detailed  figures  of  the  extent  of  our 
vegetable -gardening  industry.  The  best  are  those  made 
ten  years  ago  by  the  Eleventh  Census  and  published  in 
Bulletin  41  (March  19,  1891),  by  J.  H.  Hale.  These 
figures  show  that  upwards  of  $100,000,000  were  invested 
in  truck -farming,  and  the  product  for  1890,  after  pay- 
ing freights  and  commissions,  amounted  to  $76,517,155. 
Five  hundred  and  thirty -four  thousand  four  hundred 
and  forty  acres  of  land  were  devoted  to  the  industry, 
and  this  required  the  labor  of  216,765  men,  9,254 
women,  14,874  children,  and  75,866  horses  and  mules. 
The  value  of  the  implements  employed  was  $8,971,206. 
Yet,  great  as  this  industry  was,  the  greater  part  of  it 
had  developed  within  the  last  thirty  years. 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  Twelfth  Census  will 
show  large  gains  over  these  figures.  The  acreage  of 
truck  crops  was  distributed  as  follows,  according  to 
the  Census  of  1890: 


Statistics 


13 


Acres 

Watermelon 114,381 

Cabbage 77,094 

Pea 56,162 

Asparagus 37,970 

Sweet  potato 28,621 

Melon •   •   I/ 28>477 

Potato >% 28,046 

Tomato. 22,802 

Spinach -    .  20,195 

Celery 15,381 

Bean  (string  or  snap) 12,607 

Cucumber 4,721 

Kale 2,962 

Beet.   .    .   ,.'.-  ".-•'.   .   .  '.»  .  i 2,420 

Miscellaneous 82,601 


534,440 

The   distribution  of   these  crops,  by  acres,  was  as 
follows  : 


a 

1 

i 

1 

DISTRICTS 

9 

0    H 

\ 

I 

a 

a 

1 

I 

1"° 

1 

i 

3 

1 

i 

I 

1 

6 

1  New  England  

242 

83 

65 

443 

1,586 

272 

210 

645 

2  New     York      and 

Philadelphia  

6,592 

864 

2,710 

4,058 

41,054 

870 

110 

7,320 

7,223 

3  Peninsular 

2,640 

67 

615 

97 

3,275 

313 

590 

2,469 

1,160 

4  Norfolk  ".  

1,973 

116 

1,098 

130 

9,790 

285 

878 

2,974 

1,784 

5  Baltimore  

2,270 

134 

585 

198 

4,165 

360 

261 

620 

475 

6  South  Atlantic  

14,090 

766 

3,465 



3,309 

1,265 

690 

55,726 

1,102 

7  Mississippi  Valley. 

2,323 

144 

1,376 

46 

2,816 

354 

240 

6,069 

1,343 

8  Southwest  

1,719 

60 

1,875 

313 

2,730 

894 

170 

8,098 

2,238 

9  Central 

5864 

186 

818 

9,812 

6,103 

108 

23 

28,771 

12,210 

10  Northwest 

135 

150 

400 

12 

18 

496 

390 

18 

12  Pacific  Coast 

110 

116 

1,370 

1,734 

279 

The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


• 

i 

CO 

DISTRICTS 

I 

! 

* 

1 

1 

| 

i 

rg 

I 

1 

1 

1 

i 

AH 

M 

02 

02 

H 

« 

^ 

1  New  England  

1,476 

427 

310 

305 

774 

6,838 

2  New     York      and 

Philadelphia  

9,446 

2,361 

4,660 

3,262 

6,990 

10,615 

108,135 

3  Peninsular  

3,224 

1.295 

4,860 

2,128 

416 

2,565 

25,714 

4  Norfolk  

5,858 

3,305 

3,187 

5,965 

525 

7,507 

45,375 

5  Baltimore  

5,170 

2,860 

3,150 

1,980 

3,780 

11,173 

37,181 

6  South  Atlantic  

12,899 

5,850 

3,133 

1,838 

2,986 

4.322 

111,441 

7  Mississippi  Valley  . 

5,879 

4,071 

1,160 

1,590 

3,170 

5,599 

36,180 

8  Southwest  

3,281 

3,602 

3,725 

1,378 

2,918 

3,888 

36.889 

9  Central     

7,555 

2,845 

4,556 

1,744 

1,362 

25,457 

107,414 

10  Northwest  

60 

60 

278 

1,083 

11  Mountain  

90 

840 

1,969 

3,833 

12  Pacific  Coast 

1,224 

590 

190 

290 

8,454 

14,357 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  these  figures  do  not  cover 
the  entire  commercial  vegetable -gardening  of  the  coun- 
try, but  only  that  which  was  officially  designated  as 
truck -gardening  (page  2). 

"Taken  in  its  entirety,  this  comparatively  new  in- 
dustry is  found  to  be  in  a  healthy,  prosperous  condition. 
New  sections  are  being  developed  from  year  to  year 
that  to  a  certain  extent  affect  the  prosperity  of  some  of 
the  older  ones,  and  there  is  likely  to  be  more  or  less 
shifting  of  trucking  centers  every  few  years,  all  upon 
advancing  lines,  however.  New  and  better  methods  of 
culture,  with  the  further  invention  of  labor-saving 
machinery,  must  of  necessity  reduce  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. Better  transportation  facilities  will  place  the 
products  of  these  farms  in  cities  and  towns  more 
promptly,  in  better  condition  and  at  less  cost;  while 
the  ever -increasing  population  and  wealth  of  the  cities 


Statistics   of  Seed -Crops 


15 


and  towns  insure  a  greatly  increased   consumption  at 
satisfactory  prices  for  first-class  productions." 

A  special  enumeration  of  the  seed -farms  of  the 
United  States  was  made  by  J.  H.  Hale,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Eleventh  Census  bureau  (Bull.  Ill, 
Sept.  4,  1891).  Starting  with  the  establishment  of 
Landreth's  seed-farm,  at  Philadelphia  in  1784,  the 
industry  had  enlarged  to  596  farms,  with  a  total  of 
169,851  acres  devoted  exclusively  to  the  business.  The 
ten  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  Census  was  taken 
have  seen  large  developments  in  the  seed -growing  busi- 
ness. The  acreage  of  the  different  seed -crops  was  as 
follows  : 


Acres 

Field  Corn 16,322 

Bean  ...."....  12,905 

Pea 7,971 

Squash 4,663 

Potato 4,102 

Onion 3,560 

Cabbage 1,268 

Turnip 885 

Carrot 569 

Parsnip 374 


Onion  sets 
Spinach  .  . 
Pumpkin  . 
Parsley  .  . 
Dandelion  . 
Rhubarb  . 
Endive  .  . 
Collards  . 
Cauliflower 
Corn -salad 
Celeriac 


352 
150 
105 

75 

39% 

25 

16 

13 

11 
IX 
X 


Acres 
Sweet  Corn     .    .    .    .15,004 

Cucumber 10,219 

Muskmelon 5,149 

Tomato 4,356 

Watermelon 3,978 

Asparagus 1,437 

Beet 919 

Radish      662 

Lettuce  .  .* 486% 

Pepper 365 

Eggplant 252 


Kale 

Flower  Seeds  . 
Celery  .  .  .  . 
Salsify  .  .  .  . 
Kohlrabi  .  .  . 

Leek 

Okra 

Nasturtium  .  . 
Cress  .  . 


105 
81 
71 
26 
19 


13 
2 


16  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

More  than  one-half  the  farms  were  established  since 
1870,  and  this  is  an  indication  that  the  business,  as  a 
whole,  is  prospering.  "So  far  as  reported,  there  were 
but  two  seed -farms  in  the  country  previous  to  1800 
(one  of  these  was  established  in  Philadelphia  in  1784, 
and  the  other  at  Enfield,  New  Hampshire,  in  1795), 
only  3  in  1820,  6  in  1830,  19  in  1840,  34  in  1850,  53  in 
1860,  100  in  1870,  207  in  1880,  and  200  more  were 
established  between  1880  and  1890,  leaving  189  unac- 
counted for  as  to  date  of  establishment.  But,  as  the 
proprietors  of  the  older  seed -farms  take  great  pride  in 
this  matter,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  90  per  cent  of  the 
unreported  farms  have  come  into  existence  within  the 
last  twenty  years."  "Of  the  596  seed -farms  in  the 
United  States,  258,  or  nearly  one -half,  are  in  the  North 
Atlantic  division,  the  original  center  of  seed  produc- 
tion. These  farms  have  an  acreage  of  47,813,  or 
an  average  of  185  acres  per  farm,  while  in  the 
North  Central  division  there  are  157  farms,  with  an 
acreage  of  87,096,  or  an  average  of  555  acres  per 
farm.  The  seed -farms  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecti- 
cut average  142  acres  per  farm,  while  those  of  Iowa 
and  Nebraska  are  695  acres  in  extent,  and  are  pro- 
ducing seeds  on  a  scale  of  equal  magnitude  to  the 
other  products  of  that  section  of  the  country.  Several 
of  these  seed -producing  farms  embrace  nearly  3,000 
acres  each." 

"From  general  information  obtained  from  the  seed- 
farmers,  and  a  study  of  the  figures  in  this  bulletin,  it 
appears  that  this  branch  of  agriculture  has  kept  fully 
apace  with  the  general  march  of  national  progress. 


Imports   and   Exports 


17 


Prior  to  1850  all  the  seed-farms  of  the  country  were  in 
the  few  northeastern  states  of  the  Union,  Connecticut 
and  New  York,  for  more  than  half  a  century  producing 
more  seeds  than  all  other  states  combined ;  and  while 
each  has  at  present  more  seed -farms  than  any  other 
state,  the  general  westward  tendency  of  all  that  per- 
tains to  agriculture  has  stimulated  seed -growing  on  a 
very  extensive  scale  in  the  central  west  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast." 

The  publications  of  the  United  States  Treasury 
Department  show  that  our  imports  of  vegetables  are 
very  important,  as  compared  with  the  exports.  The 
following  summary  figures  for  four  years  show  the 
fluctuations  and  the  footings  : 


1896 

Imports 

Exports 

Jan.    . 

.  $130,575 

$135,295 

Feb.    . 

.    122,983 

112,195 

March 

.    170,953 

98,480 

April  . 

.    210,909 

102,168 

May.  . 

.    249,998 

105,258 

June  . 

.    231,700 

131,695 

July    . 

.    121,976 

123,881 

Aug.   - 

.    157,561 

163,734 

Sept.  . 

.    148,345 

185,347 

Oct..  . 

.    214,076 

258,415 

Nov.   . 

.    193,098 

262,338 

Dec.    . 

.    166,340 

241,156 

1897 

Imports 

Exports 

Jan.    . 

.  $119,403 

$180,112 

Feb.    . 

.    129,293 

156,698 

March 

.    192,200 

172,237 

April  . 

.    465,293 

171,020 

May.  . 

.    437,120 

185,105 

June  . 

.    227,241 

237,881 

July    . 

.    146,522 

229,886 

Aug.  . 

.      57,921 

242,474 

Sept.  . 

.      89,994 

267,360 

Oct..  . 

.    155,138 

278,826 

Nov.   . 

.    152,184 

209,429 

Dec.    . 

.    150,675 

180,935 

Total  .  $2,118,514  $1,919,962 
Correc'd 
total.  $2,118,603 

Excess  of  imports.  .  $198,641 


Total  .  $2,322,984  $2,511,963 
Correc'd 
total.  $2,322,986 

Excess  of  exports.  .  $188,977 


18 


The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


1898 

Imports 

Exports 

Jan.    . 

.  $125,801 

$163,978 

Feb.    . 

.    128,476 

202,493 

March 

.    169,699 

193,089 

April  . 

.    283,533 

156,097 

May    . 

.    425,681 

117,633 

June  . 

.    148,810 

139,588 

July    . 

.    142,906 

142,714 

Aug.  . 

.    119,958 

261,163 

Sept.  . 

.    160,433 

376,523 

Oct.    . 

.    153,998 

310,912 

Nov.   . 

.    169,408 

307,095 

Dec.    . 

.    136,423 

275,473 

Total  . 

$2,165,126 

$2,646,758 

Excess 

of  exports 

.  $481,632 

1899 

Imports 

Exports 

Jan.    . 

.    $90,967 

$184,254 

Feb.    . 

.    126,502 

153,199 

March 

.    211,007 

219,936 

April  . 

.    368,785 

165,043 

May    . 

.    342,918 

168,025 

June  . 

.    155,329 

234,254 

July    . 

.    112,818 

293,754 

Aug.   . 

.    145,639 

258,001 

Sept.  . 

.    155,756 

362,180 

Oct.     . 

.    179,910 

335,983 

Nov.   . 

.    199,220 

300,109 

Dec.    . 

.    238,808 

250,919 

Total  .  $2,327,659  $2,925,657 
Correc'd 

total  to 

March, 

1900  .  $2,336,131  $2,926,458 
Excess  of  Exports  .  $590,327 

The  greatest  import  months  are  April,  May  and 
June.  Following  is  a  list  of  dutiable  vegetables  for 
the  largest  month  in  1896-9  (May,  1898)  : 

Bushels  Value 

Beans  and  dried  peas 8,957  $5,714 

Onions 229,264  213,924 

Potatoes 298,944  135,261 

Pickles  and  sauces 37,951 

All  others  in  their  natural  state    ....  8,879 

Prepared  or  preserved 23,952 


Total $425,681 

The  heaviest  export  months  are  August  to  Novem- 
ber. During  the  four  years  the  greatest  export  month 
was  September,  1898: 


Capital   Required  19 

Bushels        Value 

Beans  and  peas 83,677  $130,469 

Onions 52,298      38,103 

Potatoes..    .    .   .- 105,452      80,160 

Vegetables,  canned  .    .    '.-. 99,464 

All  others,  including  pickles  and  sauces      28,327 

Total $376,523 


4.     EQUIPMENT   AND   CAPITAL 

The  estimates  for  the  equipment  of  a  vegetable 
garden  range  from  $25  to  several  hundred  dollars  an 
acre.  This  range  represents  the  great  variety  of  con- 
ditions in  which  market- gardening  is  undertaken.  The 
amount  of  capital  required  to  stock  and  to  run  a 
market-garden  is  determined  primarily  by  four  consid- 
erations :  (1)  the  general  type  of  business,  whether 
intensive  or  extensive,  near  to  market  or  far  away; 

(2)  the  kinds  of  crops  to  be  grown,  whether  requiring 
highly  enriched  land,  much  glass,  or  high-priced  labor; 

(3)  the  general  condition  of   the  farm,  whether  it  is 
in   good  tillage   or  run   down,   drained   or   undrained, 
heavy  or  light  soil ;    (4)  the  man. 

The  best  known  estimate  is  Peter  Henderson's, — 
$300  per  acre.  This  amount  is  astonishingly  large  to 
the  general  farmer  ;  but  market- gardening,  when  at  its 
best,  is  an  intensive  business,  and  to  half  do  it  is  to 
fail.  As  a  rule,  farmers  do  not  put  sufficient  capital 
into  their  business  to  make  it  pay.  They  are  afraid 
to  risk  anything.  They  work  short-handed  and  at  a 
disadvantage.  A  business  man  will  buy  a  farm  which 
will  scarcely  pay  the  taxes,  put  more  money  into  it 


20  The   Principles   of   Vegetable- Gardening 

than  it  is  worth,  and  make  it  pay.  Some  of  our  most 
successful  farmers  are  men  who  were  not  raised  on 
the  farm. 

"The  small  amount  of  capital  required  to  begin 
farming  operations  creates  great  misconception  of  what 
is  necessary  for  commercial  gardening,"  writes  Peter 
Henderson,*  "for,  judging  from  the  small  number  of 
acres  wanted  for  commencing  a  garden,  many  suppose 
that  a  few  hundred  dollars  is  all  sufficient  for  a  mar- 
ket-gardener. For  want  of  information  on  this  subject, 
hundreds  have  failed,  after  years  of  toil  and  privation. 
At  present  prices  (1886)  no  one  would  be  safe  to  start 
the  business  of  vegetable  market -gardening,  in  the 
manner  it  is  carried  on  in  the  neighborhood  of  New 
York,  with  a  capital  of  less  than  $300  per  acre,  for 
anything  less  than  ten  acres  ;  if  on  a  larger  scale,  it 
might  not  require  quite  so  much.  The  first  season 
rarely  pays  more  than  current  expenses,  and  the  capital 
of  $300  per  acre  is  all  absorbed  in  horses,  wagons, 
glass,  manures,  etc." 

Rawson  treats  the  question  as  follows  :  t  "Among 
gardeners,  opinions  vary  as  to  the  area  that  an  indi- 
vidual may  wisely  include  in  his  plans.  Many  have  an 
idea  that  five  acres  of  land  will  be  enough ;  others  put 
it  at  ten ;  while  it  is  known  that  some  cultivate  a 
hundred  acres  or  more  at  a  profit.  The  amount  of 
capital  required  varies,  to  some  extent,  with  the  amount 
of  land  cultivated,  but  not  in  proportion.  While  it 
might  require  about  $3,000,  with  the  labor  of  three  men 

*  Gardening  for  Profit,  new  ed.  17. 
t  Success  in  Market-Gardening,  68. 


Opinions   on    Capital   Required  21 

and  two  horses,  to  properly  handle  two  acres,  I  esti- 
mate that  there  would  be  needed  about  $5,000,  six  men 
and  three  horses  for  ten  acres,  and  that  $20,000,  forty 
men  and  twenty  horses  would  be  sufficient  for  one 
hundred  acres." 

These  estimates  of  Henderson  and  Eawson  apply  to 
the  most  intensive  market -gardening  near  the  large 
cities.  Hotbeds  and  manures  are  very  large  items. 
Farther  away  from  the  cities,  on  cheaper  land  and  in 
the  growing  of  general -purpose  and  general -season 
crops,  much  less  capital  is  required.  Even  in  the 
neighborhood  of  large  cities,  one  may  often  start  on  a 
much  more  modest  scale  if  he  is  content  to  work  up 
slowly.  Quinn  remarks*  that  he  knows  "personally  a 
large  number  of  well-to-do  market -gardeners — men 
now  worth  from  ten  to  forty  thousand  dollars  each — 
none  of  whom  had  five  hundred  dollars  to  begin  with. 
Industrious,  hard-working  men,  these,  who  at  first 
turned  every  available  dollar  into  manure  and  reliable 
seeds."  Greiner  writes t  that  "much  can  be  done  on  a 
very  few  acres  of  land.  If  land  is  plentiful  and  cheap, 
he  may  have  a  sufficiency  to  support  horse  and  cow. 
Otherwise  five  acres  would  be  enough  for  a  start.  The 
capital  should  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  place  and  the 
implements  and  equipment  needed.  Among  the  latter  is 
a  small  forcing-pit,  or  greenhouse,  and  a  number  of  hot- 
bed sashes.  Outside  the  place  and  horse,  $400  or  $500 
might  answer  for  a  small  beginning.  There  is  no  need 
of  going  beyond  the  reach  of  one's  available  capital. 


*  Money  in  the  Garden,  21. 
tThe  Young  Market-Gardener,  9. 


22  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

If  the  business  does  not  prove  profitable,  the  less  money 
invested  the  better.  If  it  turns  out  as  anticipated,  the 
profits  from  it  will  soon  put  the  right  man  in  the  situ- 
ation to  extend  his  operations.  In  a  few  years'  time 
much  can  be  done  from  even  a  very  modest  start." 

If  one  has  insufficient  capital  to  enable  him  to  make 
the  most  from  his  place,  it  will  be  better  for  him  to 
concentrate  his  energies  on  a  part  of  it.  The  remainder 
of  the  place  can  be  seeded  to  clover  or  put  into  other 
green -manure  crops  to  fit  it  for  subsequent  use;  or  it 
may  be  used  for  the  growing  of  forage  for  the  horses 
or  mules.  Market -gardening  is  an  intensive  business. 

Burnet  Landreth,  who  has  made  a  study  of  this  sub- 
ject, *  makes  two  classes  of  market- gardeners — those 
who  are  "  satisfied  to  live  on  inexpensive  land  far 
removed  from  market,  and  to  use  what  others  would 
term  an  incomplete  line  of  implements,  and  be  satisfied 
with  what  nature  develops  in  the  ordinary  routine  of 
their  business,"  and  those  who,  "  more  progressive, 
locate  in  the  outskirts  of  great  cities,  consequently 
upon  high-priced  land,  and  have  everything  new  in 
the  way  of  labor-saving  appliances." 

"  The  first  class  of  gardeners,"  he  explains,  "  may  be 
termed  experimental  farmers,  men  tired  of  the  hum- 
drum rotation  of  farm  processes  and  small  profits,  men 
looking  for  a  paying  diversification  of  their  agricul- 
tural interests.  Their  expenses  for  appliances  are  not 
great,  as  they  have  already  on  hand  the  usual  stock  of 
farm  tools,  requiring  only  one  or  two  seed  drills,  a 
small  addition  to  their  cultivating  implements,  and 

*  Market-Gardening  and  Farm  Notes,  5. 


Landreth   on    Capital   Required  23 

a  few  tons  of  fertilizers.  Their  laborers  and  teams  are 
always  on  hand  for  the  working  of  moderate  areas.  In 
addition  to  their  usual  expenses  of  the  farm,  they 
would  not  need  to  have  a  cash  capital  of  beyond  $20 
to  $25  dollars  per  acre  for  the  area  in  truck.  Other 
men,  in  ordinary  farming  districts,  purchasing  or  rent- 
ing land,  especially  for  market -gardening,  taking  only 
improved  land  of  suitable  aspect,  soil  and  situation, 
and  counting  in  cost  of  building,  appliances  and  labor, 
would  require  a  cash  capital  of  $80  to  $100  per  acre. 
For  example,  a  beginner  in  market -gardening  in  South 
Jersey,  on  a  five -acre  patch,  would  need  $500  to  set 
up  the  business  and  run  it  until  his  shipments  began  to 
return  'him  money.  With  the  purpose  of  securing  in- 
formation on  this  interesting  point,  the  writer  asked 
for  estimates  from  market -gardeners  in  different  locali- 
ties, and  the  result  has  been  that  from  Florida  the 
reports  of  the  necessary  capital  per  acre  in  land  or  its 
rental  (not  of  labor),  fertilizers,  tools,  implements, 
seed  and  all  the  appliances,  average  $95,  from  Texas 
$45,  from  Illinois  $70,  from  the  Norfolk  district  of 
Virginia  the  reports  vary  from  $75  to  $125,  accord- 
ing to  location,  and  from  Long  Island,  New  York,  the 
average  of  estimates  at  the  east  end  are  $75,  and  at 
the  west  end,  $150. 

"  Market -gardeners,  living  ten  miles  out  of  Phila- 
delphia, on  tracts  of  twenty  and  thirty  acres,  devoting 
all  their  land  and  energies  to  growing  vegetables, 
sometimes  paying  $40  per  acre  for  rent,  estimate  that 
the  necessary  capital  averages  from  $200  to  $300  per 
acre,  according  to  the  amount  of  truck  grown  in  hot- 


24  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

beds.      These    same    men    calculate   the    profits   to   be 
from  $150  to  $250  per  acre. 

«  Very  different  is  the  case  on  the  immediate  out- 
skirts of  Philadelphia,  and  other  large  cities,  with  the 
five-  and  ten -acre  gardeners,  employing  several  men  to 
the  acre,  sometimes  a  larger  force,  where  high  rents, 
high  wages,  intense  manuring  and  expensive  forcing- 
houses  combine  to  swell  the  expenses  to  an  astonish- 
ing degree,  often  over  $600  or  $700  per  acre  being 
absorbed  the  first  year,  and  without  which  ready 
capital  at  command  the  suburban  cultivator  would  be 
driven  to  the  wall  before  the  close  of  the  first  season, 
as  he  works  under  heavy  expenses,  angl  he  must  have 
ready  cash  to  meet  them,  especially  if  the  first  season 
be  an  unprofitable  one.  Of  course,  the  $600  or  $700 
per  acre  which  may  be  expended  the  first  year  by  a 
gardener  having  forcing -houses,  with  all  the  entailed 
expenses,  need  not  be  repeated  the  second,  not  more 
than  one -half  of  it,  and,  indeed,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  reduce  expenses,  as  the  profit  in  truck- 
ing would  not  warrant  such  an  annual  cash  outlay." 

Following  is  a  detailed  estimate  for  buildings  and  appliances 
to  operate  a  ten-acre  farm  for  general  gardening  near  one  of  the 
eastern  cities,  by  E.  J.  Hollister,  a  market -gardener  who  has  had 
much  experience  in  the  middle  states  and  West  (prices  of  1898-9) : 

EQUIPMENT 

Dwelling  house  . $600  00 

Barn,  sheds  for  tools,  and  shelter  in  which  to  prepare 

vegetables  for  market 300  00 

Horses  and  horse  tools — 

2  work  horses 200  00 

1  set  double  harness 35  00 


Capital   Itemized  25 

1  lumber  wagon $50  00 

1  light  market-wagon 75  00 

1  2-horse  plow 20  00 

1  1-horse  plow 8  00 

harrow 12  00 

roller 20  00 

5 -tooth  Planet  cultivator 7  00 

11 -tooth  Planet  cultivator 8  00 

Planet  Jr.  seed  drill,  No.  5  .   .   .   . 12  00 

celery  hiller    ......   1 8  00 

Hand  implements — 

1  hand  cultivator,  single  wheel 5  00 

6  garden  rakes , 3  00 

6  hoes    ...,,..;-.... 3  00 

6  planting  trowels 1  50 

200  feet  of  line  and  reel   .    . 1  50 

1  wheelbarrow 5  00 

1  spade 1  00 

1  short-handled  square  shovel 1  00 

1  long-handled  round-pointed  shovel 1  25 

2  long-handled  manure  forks 1  50 

Carpenter's  tools— 

1  hand  saw 2  00 

1  square 75 

1  plane 1  00 

1  set  brace  and  bits 2  00 

1  hammer 1  00 

1  hand  ax 75 

Frames — 

30  3  x  6  hotbed  sash 75  00 

600  feet  pine  lumber  for  hotbed  frames 12  00 

30  wooden  shutters  or  mats  for  hotbed  protection    ...  15  00 

1  force  pump 10  00 

50  feet  of  hose  for  watering  hotbeds 6  00 

Well  near  hotbeds . 25  00 

$1,529  20 


26          The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

ESTIMATED  WORKING  CAPITAL 

Seeds 50  00 

Fertilizer  for  5  acres 150  00 

Man  to  help  for  7  months » 200  00 

Grand  total $1,929  20 

The  following  estimate  is  made  by  Irving  C.  Smith,  of  J.  M. 
Smith's  Sons,  Green  Bay,  Wis.,  well  known  high-class  market- 
gardeners.  The  estimate  supposes  that  the  area  is  ten  acres  of 
land  in  a  fair  state  of  cultivation,  and  that  the  party  desires  to 
make  a  first-class  market-garden  to  supply  the  varying  needs 
of  the  market  (prices  of  1898-9): 

House  for  proprietor,  with  cellar  full  size $900  00 

Stable  16  x  24,  with  buggy  shed  attached 200  00 

Packing   house   22x44,  16  feet   studding,   stone    wall, 

brick- lined  cellar,  making  two  stories  and  cellar  .    .  600  00 

Cooler  14  x  16  feet 150  00 

Icehouse  16x20  feet,  16  feet  studding 11000 

Onion  shed  16x20 85  00 

Hay  shed  for  berry  covering 50  00 

Tool  and  wagon  shed 75  00 

Buildings $2,170  00 

Water  plant,  including  piping $800  00 

200  feet  1%-inch  rubber  hose 75  00 

100  hotbed  sash  32  x  72  inches 18500 

Frames  for  hotbeds 60  00 

31  blankets  for  winter  protection,  7x9  feet,  $2.25  .    ...  7000 

Water  plant  and  hotbeds $1,190  00 

1  team  draft  horses,  3,200  Ibs $250  00 

1  horse,  roadster,  1,200  Ibs .  125  00 

1  heavy  double  harness 30  00 

1  heavy  single,  $17 ;  one  buggy  harness,  $18 35  00 

1  heavy  wagon,  3-inch  tire 45  00 

1  one -cord  box  for  same,  top  section  to  lift  off 20  00 


Equipment   Itemized  27 

1  low  wheel  truck  with  plank  top $25  00 

1  one-horse  medium  weight  wagon 30  00 

Box,  flat,  and  bolster  springs  for  same 17  00 

1  buggy 50  00 

1  one-horse  spring  delivery  wagon 85  00 

1  pair  heavy  work  sheds 35  00 

1  pair  light  delivery  sheds,  $25 ;  box,  $8 33  00 

1  hay  rack,  $6 ;  one  dump  box,  $2 8  00 

Horses  and  vehicles •  .  $788  00 

1  steel  plow,  $15 ;  one  cutaway  harrow,  $25 $40  00 

1  Meeker  smoothing  harrow,  $20 ;  a  tooth  harrow,  $7  .    .  27  00 

1  plank  leveler,  home-made 3  00 

1  5-tooth  cultivator,  $6;  one  14-tooth  cultivator,  $3  ...  9  00 

1  one-horse  weeder,  $10;  one  steel  scraper,  $5 15  00 

Horse  tools $94  00 

l.New  Model  seeder,  $6 ;  one  hand  weeder,  $7 $13  00 

2  Planet  Jr.  straddle  cultivators  (6- inch  hoes) 600 

1  Gem  cultivator,  $4 ;  one  Mathew  cultivator,  $3  ....  7  00 

1  Fire-fly  plow,  $2;  one  onion  puller,  $3 5  00 

1  corn  planter,  $1 ;  one  berry  box  machine,  $25 26  00 

1  knapsack  sprayer,  $12;  one  dry  powder  gun,  $7  ....  19  00 

1  kraut  cutter,  $3 ;  one  grindstone,  $3 6  00 

3  long-handled  shovels,  and  1  short-handled  shovel  ...  3  00 
3  6-tine  forks  for  general  use;  one  barley  fork  for  berry 

covering  ;  one  hay  fork  ;  one  4-tine  fork 4  00 

2  14-tooth  steel  rakes  and  three  wooden  rakes 2  00 

6  hoes,  $2 ;  two  dozen  large  and  small  knives,  $3  ....  5  00 

1  hammer,  1  hatchet,  1  saw,  1  square  for  daily  use  ...  3  00 

1  large  wheelbarrow,  $7 ;  one  dump  wheelbarrow,  $3   .    .  10  00 

Scales,  capacity  900  Ibs 17  00 

Water  cans  and  pails,  $4;  garden  line,  $1 500 

Repair  tools,    consisting  of    carpenter   tools,  punches, 

coldchisels,  wrenches,  etc 25  00 

Miscellaneous  garden  tools 20  00 

Hand  tools,  etc $176  00 


28  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Hay  for  berry  covering $30  00 

800  melon  boxes  and  glass  8x10 5000 

5,000  feet  common  lumber  for  onion  sheds,  celery  pits, 

etc.,  $50;  cedar  posts  for  celery  pits,  $15 65  00 

100  cords  of  stable  manure 150  00 

Seeds,  $75;  three  months'  expense  for  labor,  $300    ...  375  00 

Cash  for  sundry  expenses 300  00 

Cash  and  sundries ...     $970  00 

Summary 

Buildings $2,170  00 

Water  plant  and  hotbeds 1,190  00 

Horses  and  vehicles    . 788  00 

Horse  tools 94  00 

Hand  tools 176  00 

Cash  and  sundries 970  00 

Total .  . $5,388  00 

"In  the  foregoing  estimates  I  have  endeavored  to  mention  only 
those  things  which  are  necessary  and  will  be  used  frequently  on 
the  place,  saying  nothing  of  house  furniture.  Many  other  things 
will  be  needed,  which  will  be  made  on  the  place  or  bought  as 
occasion  requires.  Some  will  object  to  the  item  of  water  plant 
and  hoso;  but  if  one  expects  to  secure  the  best,  or  indeed,  any 
very  desirable  results,  it  is  necessary.  The  cost  would  vary 
greatly,  of  course,  in  different  localities.  Glass  houses  are  not 
necessary  to  grow  plants  for  spring  setting,  but  more  properly 
come  under  the  head  of  winter  gardening:  so  they  are  not  in- 
cluded. Before  the  garden  has  run  two  years,  there  will  be 
required  at  least  another  $50  in  boxes,  screens,  home-made  tools, 
etc.  It  is  presumed  that  by  July  1  enough  goods  can  be  sold  to 
pay  running  expenses." 

T.  Greiner,  a  well  known  market -gardener  and  author,  of 
western  New  York,  gives  me  the  following  estimate  of  cash 
required  to  start  a  market-garden  of  ten  acres  near  one  of  the 
eastern  cities  : 


Equipment   Itemized  29 

"  It  is  useless  to  make  an  estimate  of  cost  of  place  including 
dwelling  house  and  barn,  as  this  may  be  anywhere  between  $1,000 
and  $5,000,  according  to  location.  In  case  of  scarcity  of  working 
capital,  it  might  be  advisable  or  necessary  to  rent  rather  than 
buy  a  place.  Buying  is  preferable,  as  the  owner  has  the  benefit 
of  the  permanent  improvements  of  a  place.  But  rather  than  be 
short  otherwise,  I  would  be  a  renter.  A  forcing-pit  or  green- 
house seems  to  me  one  of  the  first  necessities,  in  fact,  indispen- 
sable for  best  success.  There  should  be  a  shed  for  preparing  and 
washing  vegetables.  It  must  contain  tank,  pump  or  other  water 
supply,  etc.  Another  necessity  is  a  full  equipment  of  best  tools, 
including  garden  drill,  hand  wheel-hoe,  Meeker  harrow,  etc.  My 
estimate  of  working  capital,  outside  of  the  place  and  buildings, 
would  be  something  like  this: 

Greenhouse,  with  heater  and  pipes $250  00 

2  horses 150  00 

Wagons  and  harnesses 150  00 

Plows,  harrows,  cultivators,  small  tools 100  00 

Hotbed  sash,  lumber,  etc 60  00 

Force  pump,  hose,  well  or  other  water  privileges  .  40  00 

Seeds 50  00 

Manures  .                                                                         ,  150  00 


Total .$950  00 

"If  growing  winter  vegetables  is  to  be  added,  or  to  be  made 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  business,  the  estimate  of  cost  will 
have  to  be  materially  modified." 

The  style  of  vegetable -gardening  differs  so  much  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  that  estimates  should  be  secured  in  one's 
own  locality  before  embarking  in  the  business.  Some  of  these 
differences  are  evident  in  the  contrasts  of  the  inventories  here 
presented. 

The  following  estimate  for  the  neighborhood  of  Boston  is 
made  for  me  by  W.  W.  Rawson.  He  thinks  it  "a  very  moderate 
sum  with  which  to  stock  a  market -garden  in  New  England  :  " 


30          The  Principles  of  Vegetable -Gardening 

Estimate  for  buildings,  tools  and  equipments  to  operate  a  market- 
garden  of  ten  acres  near  a  large  city  in  New  England 

Dwelling  house $1,000  00 

Barn  and  outbuildings 1,000  00 

Three  horses 200  00 

Harnesses 100  00 

Wagons  and  cart 400  00 

Tools,  machines,  etc 300  00 

200  hotbed  sashes 220  00 

Lumber  for  fences,  frames,  shutters,  etc.    .    .    .  300  00 

200  feet  of  hose   .  25  00 


$3,545  00 
Running  Expenses 

Seeds $100  00 

Manures  and  fertilizers 500  00 

Help,  3  men  8  months 800  00 

Incidentals 200  00 

$1,600  00 

$5,145  00 

A.  Jefferies,  Norfolk,  Va.,  makes  the  following  estimates  of 
the  necessary  capital  to  purchase  and  work  a  ten-acre  truck  farm: 

"  Ten  acres  within  say  about  four  miles  of  Norfolk  cannot  be 
counted  at  less  than  $1,000.  In  fact,  ten  acres  with  a  comfortable 
house  can  not  be  had  for  less  than  $1,600.  The  cost  of  one  good 
horse  (two  would  be  better)  and  spring  wagon,  cart,  plows,  culti- 
vators and  harrows,  $200 ;  seeds,  fertilizer  and  manure  (all  would 
have  to  be  bought  the  first  year),  say  $250;  a  cow,  two  pigs,  and 
fifty  hens,  $60.  From  the  ten  acres  one  should  sell  the  first  year, 
$1,000  worth  of  farm  products.  The  second  year  he  should  sell 
at  least  $2,000.  The  years  following,  this  sum  could  be  increased 
by  intensive  farming,  such  as  should  go  with  Hen  acres  enough,' 
up  to  $500  per  acre,  in  case  the  brain  was  used  to  fertilize  with — 
as  there  is  no  fertilizer  equal  to  brains.  We  have  cases  in  which 
$2,000  has  been  received  from  sales  in  one  year  from  one  acre, 


Planning   a  Home    Garden  31 

and  many  cases  in  which  at  least  $1,000  worth  of  produce  has  been 
sold  from  an  acre.  The  proper  manipulation  of  good  soil  here  by 
a  <  ten  -acre  -enough'  brain,  will  show  astonishing  results.  Our 
truckers  are  covering  too  much  ground.  They  are  not  thorough 
enough. 

"A  man  can  start  here  with  very  limited  capital,  provided  he 
is  made  of  the  right  material  and  is  willing  to  go  slow  at  start 
and  work  his  way  in,  instead  of  paying  his  way  in.  In  fact,  the 
men  who  have  begun  with  small  means  and  good  heads  have  made 
a  better  success  than  those  who  had  more  money.  A  man  can 
grow  forage  enough  on  one  acre  to  keep  two  cows  one  year." 

5.    THE  HOME   GARDEN 

The  things  to  be  considered  in 'the  home  garden 
are :  (1)  a  sufficient  product  to  supply  the  family; 
(2)  continuous  succession  of  crops ;  (3)  ease  and 
cheapness  of  cultivation ;  (4)  maintenance  of  the  pro- 
ductivity of  the  land  year  after  year. 

The  amount  of  product  to  be  grown  depends  on 
the  size  of  the  family  and  its  fondness  for  vegetables. 
An  area  100x150  feet  is  generally  sufficient  to  supply  a 
family  of  five  persons,  not  considering  the  winter 
supply  of  potatoes  ;  but  the  area  must  be  well  tilled 
and  handled.  Consult  Fig.  3. 

The  ease  and  efficiency  of  cultivation  are  much 
enhanced  if  all  the  crops  are  in  long  rows,  to  allow 
of  wheel -tool  tillage,  either  by  horse  or  wheel -hoe. 
The  old  practice  of  growing  vegetables  in  beds  usually 
entails  more  labor  and  expense  than  the  crop  is  worth ; 
and  it  has  had  the  effect  of  driving  more  than  one  boy 
from  the  farm.  These  beds  always  need  weeding  on 
Saturdays,  holidays,  circus  days,  and  the  Fourth  of 


32  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

July.  Even  if  the  available  area  is  only  twenty  feet 
wide,  the  rows  should  run  lengthwise  the  plot  and  be 
far  enough  apart  (from  one  to  two  feet  for  small  stuff) 
to  allow  of  the  use  of  the  hand  wheel -hoes,  many  of 
which  are  very  efficient.  If  land  is  available  for  horse  - 
tillage,  none  of  the  rows  should  be  less  than  thirty 
inches  apart,  and  for  large -growing  things,  as  late 
cabbage,  four  feet  is  better.  If  the  rows  are  long,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  grow  two  or  three  kinds  of  vege- 
tables in  the  same  row;  and  in  this  case  it  is 
important  that  vegetables  requiring  the  same  general 
treatment  and  similar  length  of  season  be  grown 
together.  For  example,  a  row  containing  parsnips  and 
salsify,  or  parsnips,  salsify  and  late  carrots,  would 
afford  an  ideal  combination ;  but  a  row  containing 
parsnips,  cabbages  and  lettuce  would  be  a  very  faulty 
combination.  One  part  of  the  area  should  be  set  aside 
for  all  similar  crops.  For  example,  all  root -crops  might 
be  grown  on  one  side  of  the  plantation,  all  cabbage 
crops  in  the  adjoining  space,  all  tomato  and  eggplant 
crops  in  the  center,  all  corn  and  other  tall  things  on 
the  opposite  side.  Perennial  crops,  as  asparagus  and 
rhubarb,  and  gardening  structures,  as  hotbeds  and 
frames,  should  be  on  the  border,  where  they  will  not 
interfere  with  the  plowing  and  tilling. 

The  best  results  in  maintaining  the  productiveness 
of  the  land  are  to  be  secured  when  it  is  possible  to 
practice  rotation  of  crops,  manures  and  tillage.  Even 
in  a  small  area,  this  rotation  can  be  practiced  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  The  area  which  is  devoted  to  root- 
crops  this  year  may  be  given  to  corn  or  melons  next 


Plan   of  a   Home    Garden 


33 


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34  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

year.  It  is  particularly  important  to  rotate  if  diseases 
and  insects  become  serious  on  any  one  crop  ;  and  in 
this  case,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
those  crops,  for  the  rotation,  on  which  the  parasites 
cannot  thrive.  For  example,  the  club -root  of  the  cab- 
bage and  cauliflower  will  work  on  turnips.  Insects 
and  diseases  should  be  starved  out  in  the  rotation. 
There  are  some  insects  which  cannot  be  starved  out  in 
a  small  area,  and  it  is  then  necessary  to  stop  growing 
the  crop  for  a  year  or  two.  The  cabbage  maggot  is  an 
example.  If  this  pest  obtains  a  good  foothold  in  the 
home  garden,  cabbages  and  cauliflowers  may  be  discon- 
tinued until  the  insect  disappears;  and  this  is  often 
a  cheaper  solution  of  the  difficulty  than  to  attempt 
to  destroy  the  insect  with  the  bisulfide  of  carbon 
treatment.  If  one  lives  on  a  farm,  the  cabbage  patch 
may  be  placed  on  the  farther  part  of  the  estate  for 
a  year  or  two.  When  the  maggot  has  quit  the  area, 
the  cabbage  patch  may  be  made  again  on  the  old 
ground. 

In  a  family  garden  of  100  x  150  feet,  the  rows  run- 
ning the  long  way  of  the  area,  eight  or  ten  feet  may  be 
reserved  on  the  borders  for  asparagus,  rhubarb,  sweet 
herbs,  flowers,  and  possibly  a  few  berry  bushes.  A 
strip  twenty  feet  wide  may  be  reserved  for  vines,  as 
melons,  cucumbers  and  squashes.  There  remains  a 
strip  seventy  feet  wide,  or  space  for  twenty  rows  three 
and  one -half  feet  apart.  This  area  is  large  enough  to 
allow  of  appreciable  results  in  rotation  ;  and  if  it  is 
judiciously  managed,  it  should  maintain  high  pro- 
ductiveness for  a  lifetime, 


Lay-out   of  a  Home    Garden  35 

Of  the  home  vegetable -garden,  Hunn  writes  as  follows  in 
the  "Garden -Book  :" 

"Make  the  vegetable-garden  ample,  but  economize  labor. 
Plant  the  things  in  rows,  not  in  beds.  Then  they  can  be  tilled 
easily,  either  by  horse-  or  hand-tools.  Wheel-hoes  will  accom- 
plish most  of  the  labor  of  tillage  in  a  small  garden.  Have  the 
rows  long,  to  avoid  waste  of  time  in  turning  and  to  economize 
the  land.  One  row  can  be  devoted  to  one  vegetable;  or  two  or 
more  vegetables  of  like  requirements  (as  parsnips  and  salsify) 
may  comprise  a  row.  Have  the  permanent  vegetables,  as  rhubarb 
and  asparagus,  at  one  side,  where  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 
plowing  or  tilling.  The  annual  vegetables  should  be  grown  on 
different  parts  of  the  area  in  succeeding  years,  thus  practicing 
something  like  a  rotation  of  crops.  If  radish  or  cabbage  maggots 
or  club -root  become  thoroughly  established  in  the  plantation, 
omit  for  a  year  or  more  the  vegetables  on  which  they  live. 

"Make  the  soil  deep,  mellow  and  rich  before  the  seeds  are 
sown.  Time  and  labor  will  be  saved.  Eake  the  surface  fre- 
quently to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  prevent  the  soil  from  baking. 
Radish  seeds  sown  with  celery  or  other  slow-germinating  seeds 
will  come  up  quickly,  breaking  the  crust  and  marking  the  rows. 
About  the  borders  of  the  vegetable -garden  is  a  good  place  for 
flowers  to  be  grown  for  the  decoration  of  the  house  and  to  give 
to  friends.  Along  one  side  of  the  area  rows  of  bush -fruits  may 
be  planted. 

"A  home  vegetable -garden  for  a  family  of  six  would  require, 
exclusive  of  potatoes,  a  space  not  over  100  by  150  feet.  Begin- 
ning at  one  side  of  the  garden  and  running  the  rows  the  short 
way  (having  each  row  100  feet  long),  sowings  may  be  made,  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  in  condition  to  work,  of  the  following  : 

Fifty  feet  each  of  parsnips  and  salsify. 

One  hundred  feet  of  onions,  25  feet  of  which  may  be  potato 
or  set  onions,  the  balance  black- seed  for  summer  and  fall  use. 

Fifty  feet  of  early  beets,  50  feet  of  lettuce,  with  which 
radish  may  be  sown  to  break  the  soil  and  be  harvested  before 
the  lettuce  needs  the  room, 


36  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

One  hundred  feet  of  early  cabbage,  the  plants  for  which 
should  be  from  a  frame  or  purchased.  Set  the  plants  18 
inches  to  2  feet  apart. 

One  hundred  feet  of  early  cauliflower  ;  culture  same  as 
for  cabbage. 

Four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  peas,  sown  as  follows  : 
100  feet  of  extra  early. 
100  feet  of  intermediate. 
100  feet  of  late. 

100  feet  of  extra  early,  sown  late. 
50  feet  of  dwarf  varieties. 

If  trellis  or  brush  is  to  be  avoided,  frequent  sowings  of 
the  dwarfs  will  maintain  a  supply. 

,  After  the  soil  has  become  warm  and  all  danger  of  frost 

has  passed,  the  tender  vegetables  may  be  planted,  as  follows: 
Corn  in  five  rows  3  feet  apart,  three  rows  to  be  early  and 
intermediate,  and  two  rows  late. 

Tomatoes,  one  row,  plants  4  to  5  feet  apart. 

One  hundred  feet  of  string  beans,  early  to  late  varieties. 

Vines  as  follows  : 

10  hills  of  cucumbers,  6x6  feet. 
20  hills  of  muskmelon,  6x6  feet. 
6  hills  of  early  squash,  6x6  feet. 
10  hills  of  Hubbard  squash,  6x6  feet. 
One  hundred  feet  of  okra. 
Twenty  eggplants. 
Six  large  clumps  of  rhubarb. 
An  asparagus  bed  25  feet  long  and  3  feet  wide. 
Late  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  celery  are  to  occupy  the 
space  made   vacant  by  removing   early  crops  of   early  and 
intermediate  peas  and  string  beans. 

A  border  on  one  side  or  end  will  hold  all  herbs,  such  as 
parsley,  thyme,  sage,  hyssop,  mints." 

The  "American  Agriculturist"  for  February  17,  1900,  prints 
the  following  sketch  of  a  "City  Man's  Garden  :" 

"The  plot  of  ground   upon  which  is  the  garden  was  bought 


A    City   Man's    Garden 


37 


fifteen  years  ago  at  a  cost  of  ten  cents  per  square  foot.  It  is 
located  upon  a  commanding  site  in  one  of  the  fashionable 
suburbs  of  Boston.  The  garden  is  divided  in  two  parts  (Figs. 
4  and  5),  separated  by  a  street.  On  the  terrace  (Fig.  4)  are 
planted  twelve  varieties  of  grapes,  which  are  being  trained  over  an 
arbor.  Scattered  about  the  place  are  apple,  pear,  plum,  peach, 


WffO 


r 


D 


ff&Mf  fr  /?VM&)  MS. 


Fig.  4.    A  city  man's  home  garden. 

apricot,    cherry,   chestnut  and    mulberry   trees,    which    are    just 
coming  into  bearing  and  have  great  promise. 

"The  lower  garden  (Fig.  5)  comprises  4,650  square  feet,  most 
of  which  has  been  cultivated  by  Mr.  Hauck  for  thirteen  years,  who 
says:  '  It  is  still  my  hobby,  my  pride.  It  is  situated  on  a  gentle, 
sunny  slope,  gaming  all  the  moisture  from  the  hill  above.  The 
soil  is  dark,  mellow  and  rich,  with  a  clay  bottom,  and  through 


38          The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

years  of  cultivation  almost  free  from  stones  and  noxious  weeds.' 
The  tools  used  comprised  a  lot  of  miscellaneous  garden  imple- 
ments, and  a  Planet  Jr.  seed  drill  and  a  combined  wheel-hoe  and 
cultivator.  I  believe  in  raising  as  many  different  varieties  of 
vegetables  as  my  limited  space  permits.  *  *  *  It  has  been 
customary  with  me  for  several  years  to  use  barnyard  manure  and 
Bowker's  fertilizers  alternately,  so  in  November  (1898),  after 
clearing  the  garden,  a  good  layer  of  manure  and  an  application  of 
lime  were  plowed  under.  Every  inch  of  ground  is  utilized.  As 
soon  as  one  crop  disappears  another  one  makes  its  appearance 
and  takes  its  place.  This  enables  me  to  always  have  something 
new  for  the  table  and  plenty  of  it. 

"Water  was  supplied  for  irrigation  during  dry  weather  by 
rigging  up  an  old  rotary  pump  and  hose  and  connecting  with  the 
cistern.  Bordeaux  mixture  was  used  for  spraying  tomatoes, 
beans  and  other  plants  to  prevent  rust  and  blight,  and  a  little 
Paris  green  was  added  to  it  for  potatoes.  Freedom  from  cut- 
worms was  attributed  to  the  use  of  lime  and  plowing  in  the  fall, 
as  an  adjoining  garden  was  badly  troubled.  A  row  of  old  bean 
vines  was  left  as  bait  for  green  worms,  and  cabbage  plants 
planted  near  by  escaped.  Squash  vine  borers  were  removed 
with  a  knife  by  cutting  open  the  vines,  lengthwise,  where 
they  appeared.  The  vine  was  then  carefully  bandaged  with 
a  wet  rag  and  a  fair  yield  obtained.  The  Bordeaux-Paris 
green  mixture  used  on  potatoes  proved  fatal  to  eggplants, 
but  hellebore  proved  quite  satisfactory  for  keeping  off  the 
potato  bugs. 

"One  hotbed  3x6  feet  was  used  in  which  to  start  the  seeds 
of  early  vegetables.  Plantings  were  made  in  the  open  ground  as 
soon  as  the  weather  permitted,  and  were  continued  at  intervals 
throughout  the  season  whenever  there  was  a  vacant  spot  in  the 
garden.  The  following  varieties  of  vegetables,  mostly  in  five-  and 
ten-cent  packets,  were  planted:  Pole  and  wax  beans,  beets, 
borecole,  kale,  cabbage,  carrots,  cauliflower,  celery,  celeriac, 
corn,  cucumber,  corn  salad,  endive,  eggplant,  kohlrabi,  lettuce, 
muskmelon,  onions,  peppers,  peas,  salsify,  radish,  spinach, 
squash,  tomato,  turnip,  rutabagas,  escarole,  chives,  shallot, 


A    City   Man's    Garden 


39 


40  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

parsley,  sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  and  nearly  a  dozen  different 
kinds  of  sweet  herbs. 

"The  garden  was  planted  as  shown  by  the  cuts.  In  the 
larger  garden  (Fig.  5)  tomatoes  followed  peas,  turnips  the  wax 
beans,  early  lettuce  for  fall  use  took  the  place  of  Refugee  beans. 
Corn  salad  succeeded  lettuce.  The  spinach  was  followed  by 
cabbage,  while  turnips,  beets,  carrots,  celery  and  spinach  gave  a 
second  crop  in  the  plot  occupied  by  Gradus  peas  and  Emperor 
William  beans.  Winter  radishes  came  after  Telephone  peas, 
Paris  Golden  celery  was  planted  in  between  the  hills  of  Stowell's 
Evergreen  corn,  and  gave  a  good  crop  for  home  use  without 
blanching.  The  plot  of  early  corn  was  sown  to  turnips.  The 
hotbed  was  used  during  the  late  fall  and  winter  to  store  some 
of  the  hardy  vegetables,  and  the  latter  part  of  October  there 
were  placed  in  it  some  endive,  escarole,  celeriac,  and  the  remain- 
ing space  was  filled  up  by  transplanting  leeks,  chives  and  parsley. 

"  The  value  of  the  garden  and  the  cost  of  the  same  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Products  for  home  use $54  24 

Products  sold 65  75 

Products  given  away 11  36 

Plants  sold 3  75 

Plants  given  away 3  45 

Total $138  55 

Expenses 

Plowing  and  harrowing $3  00 

Manure 2  00 

Seeds 10  00 

Insecticides 1  20 

Labor 42  00 

Total .    .    .    .   .  $58  20 

Profit $80  35" 

Probably  the  general  farmer,  more  than  any  other  person, 
needs  to  be  urged  to  have  a  good  vegetable -garden.  Professor 


Farm    Gardens  41 

Roberts   gives  the  following  advice  for  the  "Farm  Garden"  in 
his  "Farmstead": 

"The  farm  garden  should  be  ample  and  contain  not  only 
enough  vegetables  and  small  fruits  for  the  use  of  the  family,  but 
a  surplus  to  sell  or  to  give  away.  The  farmer  used  to  large  areas 
is  reluctant  to  undertake  anything  so  small  as  he  imagines  the 
garden  to  be ;  hence,  too  often  he  plows  it  and  leaves  the  planting 
and  cultivation  of  it  to  the  'women  folks.'  If  he  knew  how  to 
manage  a  garden  he  would  find  that  the  half -acre  of  land  devoted  to 
small  fruits  and  vegetables  could  be  made  the  most  profitable  and 
pleasurable  part  of  the  farm.  Higher  remuneration  is  received 
for  the  time  spent  in  harvesting  the  products  of  a  large,  well 


~; •"•"3. 

"a 

"_J~ "  ~Y,L~"~ 

__ — -_-— ""•-•  — — - -_ 

—  t 

."_'  ~~~ ' ~~~*  5 


Fig.  6.    Plan  of  a  fa.no.  home  garden. 

kept  garden,  than  in  harvesting  the  cereals  or  milking  the  cows. 
It  must  be  said,  however,  that  there  are  good  reasons  for  the 
farmer's  distaste  for  gardening,  for  the  gardens,  as  usually  laid 
out,  necessitate  the  maximum  of  hand-culture  and  the  minimum 
of  horse -culture.  The  result  of  such  gardens  is  a  minimum  of 
products  secured  by  maximum  of  effort,  and  a  resultant  surplus 
of  weeds. 

"The  garden  should  be  about  four  times  as  long  as  it  is 
broad,  unfenced  when  possible,  near  to  the  house,  and  should  be, 
in  miniature,  a  farm  with  the  cereals,  grasses  and  large  fruits 
left  out  (Fig.  6).  The  side  farthest  from  the  dwelling  should  be 
devoted  to  the  perennial  plants,  such  as  grapes,  currants  and 
other  bush-fruits.  Everything  should  be  planted  in  straight  rows, 
with  spaces  sufficiently  wide  between  the  rows  to  admit  of  horse - 
hoe  culture.  The  grapes  and  blackberries  might  occupy  one  row, 


42  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

the  raspberries  and  currants  a  second  row,  rhubarb,  asparagus 
and  like  plants  a  third  row.  The  spaces  between  these  various 
fruits  should  be  eight  feet,  as  it  is  poor  economy  to  so  crowd 
vines  and  bushes  as  to  force  them  to  struggle  the  year  through 
for  plant-food  and  moisture.  A  rod  or  two  of  land,  more  or  less, 
virtually  amounts  to  nothing  on  the  farm.  Crowding  the  plants 
is  only  admissible  in  the  city  or  village;  here  the  plants  may 
receive  unusual  care,  and  often  may  be  irrigated  at  fruiting  time 
from  the  city  hydrant.  The  rows  of  ordinary  vegetables  may  be 
thirty  inches  apart,  except  in  case  of  such  plants  as  onions, 
lettuce  and  early  beets.  These  small,  slow-growing  esculents 
should  be  planted  in  double  rows.  Starting  from  the  last  row 
of  potatoes,  a  thirty-inch  space  is  measured  off,  a  row  of  lettuce 
planted,  and  then  one  foot  from  this  a  row  of  beets  or  onions; 
then  leave  a  space  thirty  inches  wide  and  again  plant  double  rows, 
if  more  of  the  small  esculents  are  wanted.  The  larger  spaces 
may  be  cultivated  by  horse-hoe  and  the  smaller  spaces  by  hand- 
hoe.  The  entire  garden  which  is  to  be  planted  in  the  spring 
should  be  kept  fertile  and  plowed  early  in  the  spring,  leaving 
that  part  of  it  which  is  not  designed  for  immediate  planting 
uriharrowed.  It  may  be  necessary  to  replow.  It  certainly  will 
be  necessary  to  cultivate  several  times  that  part  of  the  garden 
which  is  used  for  late -growing  crops,  such  as  cabbage  and  celery. 
As  a  rule,  the  farmer  cannot  afford  to  attempt  to  raise  two  crops 
on  the  same  land  the  same  year,  since  labor  is  everything  and 
the  use  of  land  nothing;  therefore,  better  prepare  the  ground  by 
two  or  three  plowings  for  the  late  crops  than  to  attempt  to  raise 
them  on  land  which  has  parted  with  much  of  its  readily  available 
plant-food  in  producing  the  early  crop.  Then,  too,  land  which 
has  produced  one  crop  is  likely  to  be  deficient  in  moisture,  while 
land  that  has  been  plowed  two  or  three  times  during  the  summer 
and  kept  well  harrowed  will  be  moist  and  contain  an  abundance 
of  readily  available  plant-food.  Early  in  the  spring,  when  the  land 
is  cold  and  often  too  moist,  it  is  best  to  leave  the  soil  rough  for 
a  time  if  it  is  not  to  be  planted  immediately,  that  it  may  become 
somewhat  dry  and  warm.  As  a  rule,  the  garden  should  not  be 
fenced,  but  the  chickens  should  be  restrained  by  fences  a  part  of 


A   Minnesota    Garden  43 

the  time ;  at  other  times  they  may  have  free  access  to  the  garden, 
where  they  are  often  very  beneficial  in  reducing  the  insect 
enemies." 

Professor  Thomas  Shaw  writes*  of  a  plat  of  ordinary  ground 
in  Minnesota  comprising  the  nineteenth  part  of  an  acre,  which 
for  four  years  kept  a  family  of  six  matured  persons  abundantly 
supplied  with  vegetables  all  the  year,  with  the  exception  of 
potatoes,  celery  and  cabbage.  "In  addition,  much  was  given 
away,  more  especially  of  the  early  varieties,  and  in  many  in- 
stances much  was  thrown  away.  In  other  words,  the  produce 
that  could  thus  be  obtained  from  an  acre  of  land  similarly 
situated  would  abundantly  supply,  with  nearly  all  the  vegetables 
named,  nineteen  families,  comprising,  in  all,  114  individuals." 

*«  Minnesota  Horticulturist,"  1900,  p.  102. 


CHAPTER   II 

GLASS 

IN  order  to  protect  and  to  forward  plants,  various 
glass  covers  are  used ;  and  these  covers,  of  every  kind 
and  description,  are  usually  spoken  of  as  "  glass." 
They  comprise  all  the  range  of  forcing -hills,  cold- 
frames,  hotbeds  and  glasshouses. 

Every  vegetable-gardener,  however  small  his  area, 
needs  glass.  Thereby  he  is  enabled  to  secure  a  crop 
in  advance  of  its  normal  season.  He  becomes,  in  a  meas- 
ure, independent  of  season  or  even  of  climate.  The 
vegetable -gardener  is  less  subject  to  loss  from  vagaries 
of  frost  than  the  fruit-grower  is.  He  can  cover  his 
plants.  The  plants  are  also  more  amenable  to  treat- 
ment :  he  can  sometimes  harden  them  off,  so  that  they 
withstand  frost.  He  can  grow  them  at  such  times  as 
to  escape  the  dangerous  season :  the  fruit-grower's 
plants  must  stand  and  take  it. 

The  end  and  aim  of  all  glass  is  to  forward  plants 
beyond  their  season.  This  result  is  obtained  by  pro- 
tecting the  plants  from  unpropitious  weather  or  by 
actually  forcing  them.  An  example  of  the  former  ob- 
ject is  the  protection  during  winter  of  hardy  plants 
which  are  started  in  the  fall.  The  plants  are  kept 
alive  in  the  cold  weather  by  means  of  the  covering, 


Glasshouses   vs.    Frames  45 

but  they  do  not  grow.  There  are  two  general  types 
of  the  forcing*  of  plants  :  they  may  be  started  under 
glass,  and  then  transplanted  into  the  open  ;  they  may 
be  grown  to  maturity  under  glass. 

1.     QUANTITY   AND    COST    OF    GLASS    REQUIRED 

How  much  glass  the  vegetable  -  gardener  needs  de- 
pends (1)  on  how  intensified  his  operations  are,  (2)  in 
what  season  he  wants  the  major  part  of  his  crops, 
(3)  the  region  in  which  he  is,  (4)  the  kinds  of  crops 
he  grows.  These  factors  are  largely  determined,  in 
their  turn,  by  the  man's  location  with  reference  to 
market,  and  the  price  of  labor  and  land.  Very  small 
areas  sometimes  have  sufficient  glass  to  cover  them. 

Glasshouses  are  increasing  in  number  and  popu- 
larity. They  are  driving  out  hotbeds  for  the  forcing 
of  winter  stuff.  But  for  general  vegetable -gardening, 
the  coldframe  and  hotbed  will  remain,  although  their 
relative  importance  is  likely  to  diminish.  These  humble 
structures  are  desirable  because  they  are  cheap,  because 
they  allow  the  person  quickly  to  change  or  modify  his 
business  (a  great  advantage  on  rented  land),  and 
because  they  can  be  removed  when  the  spring  forcing 


*The  author  should  say  that  the  word  forcing  is  used  in  many  senses.  He 
uses  it  as  a  generic  term  to  express  the  idea  of  making  plants  grow  and  bear 
at  other  times  than  their  usual  or  wonted  season  in  the  given  place  or 
locality.  Most  greenhouse  plants  are  not  forced :  they  grow  and  bear  in  their 
normal  season,  and  we  afford  them  the  climate  to  enable  them  to  do  so.  Thus 
begonias  are  not  forced,  merely  because  they  bloom  in  March :  carnations  and 
tomatoes  are.  The  term  forcing  is  often  used  in  a  very  special  sense  by 
florists  to  designate  the  rapid  driving -out  of  bloom  from  bulbs  and  tubers, 
as  with  lilies-of-the-valley  and  tulips, 


46  The   Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

is  done,  allowing  the  land  to  be  used  for  other  pur- 
poses. See  Figs.  7  and  8.  In  this  book,  it  is  not 
intended  to  discuss  permanent  glass  buildings,  as  forc- 
ing-houses. The  growing  of  winter  vegetables  in  the 
North  is  a  special  business,  and  demands  a  volume 
to  itself.* 

Vegetable -gardening  glass  is  usually  computed  in 
sashes.  A  normal  sash  is  3  x  6  feet  in  surface  area. 
Sashes  are  combined  into  frames.  A  frame  is  a  box 
covered  by  four  sash, —  that  is,  an  area  6x12  feet. 
For  general  and  mixed  vegetable -gardening,  about 
twenty -five  sash  are  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  garden, 
considering  that  the  plants  are  to  be  transplanted  to 
the  field,  not  matured  under  the  sash.  If  one  is  grow- 
ing particular  crops,  as  tomatoes,  fifteen  sash  may  be 
sufficient.  For  the  best  kind  of  home  gardening,  when 
it  is  desired  to  mature  spring  lettuce  and  radishes 
under  glass  as  well  as  to  transplant  stuff  into  the 
open,  from  thirty -five  to  fifty  sash  may  be  needed 
to  the  acre. 

In  growing  plants  for  transplanting,  a  sash  may  be 
estimated  to  accommodate  four  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants,  three  hundred  to 
four  hundred  tomatoes  and  eggplants,  six  hundred  to 
eight  hundred  lettuces.  When  the  plants  are  trans- 
planted in  the  frames,  only  one -third  to  two -thirds 
these  numbers  can  be  accommodated.  If  the  plants  are 
started  very  late  and  are  not  transplanted,  as  many  as 


*  There  are  three  American  books  devoted  exclusively  to  vegetable-growing 
under  glass  :  Winkler's  "Vegetable  Forcing,"  1896  ;  Dreer's  "Vegetables  Under 
Glass,"  1896  ;  Bailey's  "Forcing-Book,"  1897, 


Cost   of  Sash  49 

eight  hundred  tomato  or  cabbage  plants  can  be  grown 
under  one  sash.  In  general,  one  may  expect  to  gain 
one  month  on  the  crop  of  hardy  things  like  cabbages, 
and  two  to  three  weeks  on  tomatoes.  In  order  to  gain 
two  weeks  on  the  crop,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
gain  three  or  four  weeks  on  the  sowing.  In  extra- 
good  hotbeds,  greater  gain  can  be  secured ;  but  it  is 
not  common. 

In  figuring  on  the  amount  of  glass  required,  the 
gardener  must  consider  that  many  of  his  plants  may 
fail  after  they  are  set  in  the  field.  There  are  risks 
of  frost,  cold  rains,  droughts,  worms.  He  may  lose 
plants  while  they  are  still  in  the  frames.  The  grower 
should  start  at  least  half  more  plants  than  he  ex- 
pects to  raise.  The  surplus  may  be  left  in  the 
frames  until  the  transplanted  subjects  are  thoroughly 
established. 

The  general  estimate  of  cost  per  sash  is  $4,  this 
amount  including  the  cost  of  one -fourth  of  the  frame 
and  the  covers.  A  well-made  mortised  plank  frame, 
costs  $4  to  $5.  A  sash,  unglazed,  costs  from  $1  to 
$1.25.  Glazing  costs  75  cents.  Mats  and  shutters  cost 
from  50  cents  to  $1  per  sash,  depending  upon  the 
material  used. 

•  The  following  sample  estimate,  by  a  gardener,  illustrates  the 
method  of  casting  up  one's  outlay  for  the  season's  glass.  It  is 
an  estimate  for  a  market-garden  of  one  acre,  in  which  it  is  desired 
to  grow  a  general  line  of  vegetables.  It  supposes  that  half  of 
the  acre  is  to  be  set  with  plants  from  hotbeds. 

One -eighth  acre  to  early  cauliflower  and  cabbage,  about  2,000 
plants  ;  if  transplanted  would  require  two  6  x  12  frames,  from 


50  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

200  to  250  plants  being  grown  under  each  sash,  or  1,000  plants 
from  each  frame. 

These  frames  may  be  used  again  for  tomato  plants  for  the 
same  area,  using  about  450  plants.  This  will  allow  a  sash  for 
every  fifty-five  plants.  Plants  for  this  area  may  be  grown  in 
one  frame,  but  would  be  crowded  and  not  as  stocky  as  if  given 
more  room. 

One  frame  should  be  in  use  at  the  same  time  for  eggplants 
and  peppers,  two  sash  of  each,  growing  fifty  transplanted  plants 
under  each  sash. 

Two  frames  will  be  required  for  cucumbers,  melons  and 
early  squashes. 

If  one  wishes  to  grow  extra-early  lettuce,  an  estimate  of 
sixty  to  seventy  heads  should  be  made  to  a  sash. 

It  is  assumed  that  celery  and  late  cabbages  are  to  be  started 
in  seed-beds  in  the  open. 

If  spinach  is  grown  in  frames,  the  sash  used  for  one  of  the 
late  crops  above  may  be  used  through  the  following  winter. 

This  makes  a  total  of  five  frames,  the  cost,  depending  on 
make  and  material,  from  $1  to  $5  ;  twenty  sash  and  covers,  at 
$2.75,  $55  ;  manure  at  market  price,  calculating  at  least  three  or 
four  loads  per  frame.  This  is  a  liberal  estimate  of  space,  and 
should  allow  for  all  ordinary  loss  of  plants,  and  for  discarding 
the  weak  and  inferior  ones.  It  supposes  that  most  or  all  of  the 
plants  are  to  be  transplanted  once  or  more  in  the  frames.  Many 
gardeners  have  less  equipment  of  glass. 


2.    THE    MAKING    OF    FRAMES 

In  the  planning  of  a  coldframe  or  hotbed,  the 
builder  must  have  in  mind  the  following  objects  to  be 
attained  :  (1)  a  sufficient  and  uniform  supply  of  heat ; 
(2)  ample  protection  from  cold ;  (3)  facility  for  venti- 
lation ;  (4)  facilities  for  obtaining  water ;  (5)  plants  to 
be  near  the  glass,  and  yet  to  have  head -room  for  growth 


Location  for   Frames  51 

of  tall  kinds  ;  (6)  ease  and  convenience  of  manipula- 
tion ;  (7)  cheapness  and  durability. 

Location  and  exposure. — Ideally,  the  land  on  which 
frames  are  set  should  slope  gently  to  the  south  or 
southeast.  The  area  should  be  well  protected  from  the 
cold  and  prevailing  winds.  A  wind-break  is  necessary. 
This  may  be  a  pronounced  rise  of  land  to  the  north  or 
west,  a  building,  a  wall,  or  a  hedge.  If  none  of  these 
shelters  exists,  a  temporary  one  may  be  made.  A  board 
fence  5  to  8  feet  high  is  the  common  resort.  A  screen 
of  cornstalks  (Fig.  9),  evergreen  boughs,  or  other 
material,  may  serve  the  purpose,  Rawson  recommends 
a  board  fence,  and  says  that,  "for  convenience,  the 
fence  or  wind-break  should  slant  back  a  little  from  the 
bottom, —  about  one  foot;  it  will  then  form  a  better 
support  for  mats  and  shutters  when  leaned  against  it, 
and  will  be  much  more  convenient  in  working  around 
the  beds." 

The  frames  should  be  near  the  residence  and  easy  of 
access.  They  will  need  frequent  attention,  particularly 
in  changeable  weather.  Frames  which  are  far  from 
the  house,  or  which  are  cut  off  by  snowdrifts  or  mud, 
are  likely  to  suffer  in  critical  times.  Water  supply 
should  be  at  hand.  If  pipe -water  cannot  be  had,  a  good 
well  or  cistern,  with  force-pump,  should  be  provided. 
Some  provision  should  also  be  made  for  warming  the 
water  in  cold  weather,  for  very  cold  water  chills  and 
delays  the  plants  and  wastes  the  heat  of  the  bed. 

If  land  is  sufficient  and  the  garden  area  remains 
year  by  year  in  approximately  the  same  place,  it  is 
advisable  to  have  a  permanent  frameyard.  The  wind- 


How   the   Frames   are   Made  53 

breaks,  water  supply  and  other  accessories  can  then  be 
well  provided.  Pits  can  be  dug  for  the  hotbeds  and 
the  sides  stoned  or  bricked.  These  pits  retain  heat 
better  than  surf  ace -built  beds,  are  less  exposed  to 
winds,  and  are  permanent ;  but  they  are  more  expensive 
in  the  beginning.  The  pits  can  also  be  filled  in  the  fall 
with  manure  or  litter,  and  if  this  is  pitched  out  at  any 
time  in  winter  or  spring,  an  unfrozen  area  is  at  once 
ready  for  the  making  of  the  hotbed.  Pits  should  be 
tile -drained,  unless  the  soil  is  very  loose  and  the  bot- 
tom is  below  the  frost  line  of  the  surrounding  unpro- 


Fig.  10.    A  frame.    It  accommodates  four  sash,  and  measures  6x12  ft. 

tected  land.  If  many  frames  are  employed,  they  should 
extend,  in  parallel  rows,  six  or  seven  feet  apart,  so  thai 
a  man  walking  between  can  water  or  tend  two  runs. 

Building  the  frame. — The  common  type  of  frame  is 
shown  in  Fig.  10.  It  is  a  little  over  12  feet  long,  is  6 
feet  wide,  and  is  covered  with  four  3x6  sash.  It  is 
sometimes  made  of  ordinary  lumber  loosely  nailed  to- 
gether. If  one  expects  to  use  coldframes  or  hotbeds 
every  year,  however,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  frames 
of  2 -inch  stuff,  well  painted,  and  to  join  the  parts  by 
bolts  or  tenons,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  apart  and 


54  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

stored  until  needed  for  the  next  year's  work.  Figs.  11 
and  12  suggest  methods  of  making  the  frames  so  that 
they  may  be  taken  apart.  The  pieces  for  the  sash  to  slide 
on  are  made  of  stuff  three  inches  wide  mortised  into 

the  frame.  These 
pieces  have  a  strip 
or  mounting  nailed 
along  their  middle 
to  hold  the  sash 
to  its  place.  The 

frames    are    some- 
Fig.  11.    A  method  of  making  a  frame.  ,.  .     in    .          t. 

times  held  together 

merely  by  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  This  does 
very  well  for  use  late  in  the  season  and  for  temporary 
frames. 

The  depth  of  the  frame  must  be  governed  largely 
by  the  plants  which  it  is  desired  to  grow,  and  by  the 
length  of  time  they  are  to  remain  in  the  bed.  Have 
the  plants  as  near  the  glass  as  possible  and  yet  give 
them  room  in  which  to  grow.  If  the  frame  sets  on  top 
of  the  manure,  the  back  side  may  be  12  to  15  inches 
high,  and  the  front  side  8  to  10  inches. 

3.    HOTBEDS 

A  hotbed  has  artificial  bottom  heat,  This  heat  is 
ordinarily  supplied  by  means  of  fermenting  manure, 
but  it  may  be  obtained  from  other  fermenting  material, 
as  tan -bark  or  leaves,  or  from  heat  in  flues  or  pipes. 
The  hotbed  is  used  for  the  very  early  starting  of 
plants,  and  when  the  plants  have  outgrown  the  bed, 


56  The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

or  have  become  too  thick,  they  may  be  transplanted  into 
cooler  hotbeds  or  into  coldfrarnes.  There  are  some 
crops,  however,  which  may  be  carried  to  full  maturity 
in  the  hotbed  itself,  as  radishes  and  lettuce.  The  date 
at  which  the  hotbed  may  be  started  with  safety  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  the  means  at  command  of  heat- 
ing it  and  upon  the  skill  of  the  operator.  In  the 
northern  states,  where  outdoor  gardening  does  not 
begin  until  the  first  or  the  last  of  May,  hotbeds  are 
sometimes  started  as  early  as  January  ;  but  they  are 
ordinarily  delayed  until  early  in  March. 

Heating  with  horse  manure. — The  heat  for  hotbeds 
is  commonly  supplied  by  the  fermentation  of  horse 
manure.  It  is  important  that  the  manure  be  uniform 
in  composition  and  texture,  that  it  come  from  highly- 
fed  horses,  and  is  practically  of  the  same  age.  The 
best  results  are  generally  obtained  from  manure  from 
livery  stables,  since  it  can  be  secured  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  a  short  space  of  time.  As  much  as  one- third 
or  one -half  of  the  whole  material  may  be  of  litter 
or  straw  which  has  been  used  in  the  bedding.  If  the 
manure  is  very  dense,  it  will  not  heat  well,  and  it 
should  have  bedding,  litter  or  well  decayed  leaves 
mixed  with  it. 

The  manure  is  piled  in  a  long  and  shallow  square- 
topped  pile,  not  more  than  four  or  five  feet  high  as  a 
rule,  and  is  then  allowed  to  ferment.  Better  results 
are  generally  attained  if  the  manure  is  piled  under 
cover.  The  manure  should  be  moist,  but  not  wet.  If 
it  is  dry  when  piled,  moisten  it  throughout.  If  it  is 
very  wet,  it  will  usually  remain  cold  until  it  begins 


Managing   the   Manure  57 

to  dry  out.  Sometimes  the  addition  of  a  little  hen 
manure  to  one  part  of  the  pile  will  start  the  heat- 
ing. If  the  weather  is  cold  and  fermentation  does 
not  begin,  wetting  a  part  of  the  pile  with  hot  water 
may  start  it. 

The  first  fermentation  is  nearly  always  irregular ; 
that  is,  it  begins  unequally  in  several  places  in  the 
pile.  In  order  to  make  the  fermentation  uniform,  the 
pile  may  be  turned  occasionally,  taking  care  to  break 
up  all  hard  lumps  and  to  distribute  the  hot  manure 
throughout  the  mass.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
turn  the  pile  five  or  six  times  before  it  is  finally  used, 
although  half  this  number  of  turnings  is  ordinarily 
sufficient.  When  the  pile  is  steaming  uniformly 
throughout,  it  is  fit  to  be  placed  in  the  hotbed. 
From  the  first  piling  of  the  manure  until  it  is  fit  to 
put  in  the  bed  will  be  a  period,  ordinarily,  of  two 
weeks. 

There  are  some  cases  in  which  the  material  will  not 
need  to  be  turned  to  induce  fermentation,  particularly 
when  the  manure  is  from 'grain -fed  horses,  as  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  Sometimes  the  manure  heats  so 
quickly  and  so  violently  that  it  has  to  be  wet  in  order 
to  prevent  it  from  burning,  although  the  admixture 
of  straw  or  litter  with  the  manure  will  remedy  the 
trouble.  Each  case  is  a  law  unto  itself. 

Making  the  manure  bed. — Hotbed  frames  are  some- 
times set  on  top  of  the  pile  of  fermenting  manure,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  manure  should  extend  for 
some  distance  beyond  the  edges  of  the  frame  ;  other- 
wise the  frame  will  become  too  cold  about  the  out- 


58  The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 


side,  and  the  plants  will  suffer.     It  is  preferable,  how- 
ever, to   have  a  pit   beneath  the  frame  in  which   the 

manure  is  placed.  The  pit 
should  be  a  foot  wider 
upon  either  side  than  the 
width  of  the  frame,  and 
should  be  about  two  feet 
deep.  It  may  be  walled 
with  stone  or  brick.  It  is 

Fig.  13.    Hotbed  with  manure  on  top       very  important  that  it  have 
of  the  ground. 

perfect  drainage.     Fig.  14 

is  a  cross -section  of  such  a  hotbed  pit.  Upon  the 
ground  a  layer  of  an  inch  or  two  of  any  coarse  material 
is  laid  to  keep  the  manure  from  the  cold  earth.  Upon 
this,  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches  of  manure  is  placed. 
Above  the  manure  is  a  thin  layer  of  leaf -mold  or  some 
porous  material,  which  will  serve  as  a  distributor  of  the 
heat,  and  above  this 
is  four  or  five  inches 
of  soft  garden  loam, 
in  which  the  plants 
are  to  be  grown.  In 
exposed  places,  it  is 
always  well  to  have 
the  glass  as  near  the 
level  of  the  ground 
as  possible.  Figs. 
9,  15. 

It  is  advisable  to  place  the  manure  in  the  pit  in 
layers,  each  stratum  to  be  packed  or  settled  down 
before  another  one  is  put  in.  These  layers  should  be 


Fig.  14.     Section  of  a  hotbed. 


60          The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

from  four  to  eight  inches  in  thickness.  By  this  means 
the  mass  is  easily  made  uniform  in  consistency. 

On  the  filling  of  hotbeds,  Taft  writes  as  follows  : 
"The  amount  of  heating  material  that  will  be  required 
for  a  hotbed  will  vary  with  the  crop,  as  well  as  with 
the  location  and  season.  For  zero  weather  there  should 
be  at  least  eighteen  inches  of  heating  material  after  it 
has  been  well  packed  down,  and  twenty -four  inches  will 
be  desirable  in  mid- winter  in  the  northern  states,  while 
six  or  eight  inches  may  answer  when  only  a  few 
degrees  of  frost  are  expected.  For  eighteen  inches 
of  manure  the  excavation  should  be  made  to  a  depth 
of  twenty -eight  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
south  side  of  the  frame,  and  thirty -one  inches  below 
that  of  the  north  side.  After  the  manure  has  warmed 
through  for  the  second  time  it  should  be  placed  in  the 
excavation,  spreading  it  evenly  and  packing  it  down 
with  the  fork,  but  leaving  it  for  a  few  days  before 
tramping  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  corners 
well  filled,  that  an  even  settling  may  be  secured.  After 
the  manure  has  again  warmed  up,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly tramped.  The  bed  is  then  ready  for  the  soil, 
which  should  be  quite  rich  and  contain  a  large  amount 
of  sand  and  humus,  a  compost  of  decomposed  pasture 
sods  with  one -third  their  bulk  of  rotten  manure  being 
excellent  for  the  purpose.  The  thickness  of  the  soil 
should  vary  from  five  to  seven  inches,  the  greater  depth 
being  desirable  for  radishes  and  other  root  crops. 
When  boxes  of  plants  are  to  be  placed  in  the  beds  the 
depth  of  soil  need  not  be  more  than  three  inches." 

Only  by  experience  can  one  learn  what  is  the  proper 


Heating   with   Manure  61 

consistency  or  texture  of  good  hotbed  manure.  That 
which  has  too  much  straw,  and  which  will  therefore 
soon  part  with  its  heat,  will  spring  up  quickly  when 
the  pressure  of  the  feet  is  removed.  Manure  which 
has  too  little  straw,  and  which  therefore  will  not  heat 
well  or  will  spend  its  heat  quickly,  will  pack  down 
into  a  soggy  mass  underneath  the  feet.  When  the 
manure  has  sufficient  litter,  it  will  give  a  springy 
feeling  to  the  feet  as  a  person  walks  over  it,  but  will 
not  fluff  up  when  the  pressure  is  removed. 

The  amount  of  manure  which  is  to  be  used  will 
depend  (1)  upon  its  quality,  (2)  the  season  in  which 
the  hotbed  is  made,  (3)  the  kind  of  plants  to  be  grown, 
(4)  the  skill  of  the  operator  in  managing  the  bed. 
Careless  watering,  by  means  of  which  the  manure  is  kept 
soaked,  will  stop. the  heat  in  any  hotbed.  The  earlier 
the  bed  is  made,  the  larger  should  be  the  quantity  of 
manure.  Hotbeds  which  are  supposed  to  hold  for  two 
months  should  have  about  two  and  one -half  feet  of 
manure,  as  a  rule.  This  is  the  maximum.  For  a  light 
hotbed  to  be  used  late  in  the  season,  six  or  eight 
inches  may  be  sufficient. 

Sowing  the  seeds. — Ordinarily  the  manure  will  heat 
very  vigorously  for  a  few  days  after  it  is  placed  in  the 
bed.  A  soil  thermometer  should  be  thrust  through  the 
earth  to  the  manure,  and  the  frame  kept  tightly  closed 
with  sash  and  covers.  When  the  temperature  is  pass- 
ing below  90°,  seeds  of  the  warm  plants,  like  tomatoes, 
may  be  sown,  and  when  it  passes  below  80°  or  70°,  the 
seeds  of  cooler  plants  may  be  sown.  By  the  time  the 
beds  are  ready  for  planting,  the  weed  seeds  probably 


62  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


will  have  germinated.  Loosen  and  aerate  the  soil 
before  sowing.  Sow  in  rows  four  to  six  inches  apart. 
Plants  which  do  not  transplant  well,  as  melons  and 
cucumbers,  may  be  grown  in  pots,  old  berry  boxes, 
or  on  inverted  sods,  rather  than  directly  in  the  hotbed 
earth.  More  and  more,  gardeners  are  coming  to  start 
all  plants  in  boxes  or  flats  (Fig.  12),  for  the  plants  can 
then  be  carted  to  the  field  or  put  on  the  market  with 
ease  and  with  little  loss.  The  flats  can  also  be  shifted 
from  one  part  of  the  frame  to  another,  or  from  bed  to 
bed,  as  conditions  may  require. 

In  the  summer-time,  after  the  frames  are  stripped, 
the  old  beds  may  be  used  for  the  growing  of  various 
delicate  crops,  as  melons  or  half-hardy  flowers.  In  this 
position,  the  plants  can  be  protected  in  the  fall.  As 
already  suggested,  the  pits  should  be  cleaned  in  the 
fall  and  filled  with  litter,  to  facilitate  the  work  of 

making  the  new 
bed  in  the  winter 
or  spring. 

Various  modifi- 
cations of  the  com- 
mon type  of  hot- 
bed will  suggest 
themselves.  If  the 
hotbed  were  high 
enough  and  broad 
enough  to  allow  a  man  to  work  inside,  we  should  have 
a  forcing -house.  Such  a  structure  is  shown  in  Fig.  16, 
upon  one  side  of  which  the  manure  and  soil  are  already 
in  place.  From  two  to  three  feet  of  manure  should 


Fig.  16.    Manure-heated  forcing-house. 


Pipe  -  heated   Frames 


63 


be  used.  The  house  may  be  covered  with  hotbed  sash 
held  on  a  rude  frame  of  scantlings.  These  manure- 
heated  houses  are  often  very  efficient,  and  are  a  good 
make -shift  until  such  time  as  one  can  afford  to  put  in 
flue  or  pipe  heat. 

For  starting  plants  in  a  small  way,  a  glass -covered 
box  in  the  kitchen  window  may  answer  very  well.  An 
incubator  is  useful  for  the  germinating  of  seeds. 

Pipe -heated  hotbeds. — Hotbeds  may  be  heated  by 
means  of  steam  or  hot  water.  They  can  be  piped 
from  the  heater  in  a  dwell- 
ing-house or  greenhouse. 
Exhaust  steam  from  a  fac- 
tory can  often  be  used  with 
very  good  results.  Fig.  17 
shows  a  hotbed  with  two 
pipes,  in  the  positions  7,  7, 
below  the  bed.  The  soil  is 
shown  at  4.  There  are  doors 
in  the  end  of  the  house, 
shown  at  2,  2,  which  may  be  used  for  ventilation  or 
for  admitting  air  underneath  the  beds.  The  pipes 
should  not  be  surrounded  by  earth,  but  should  run 
through  a  free  air  space.  A  flue -heated  or  pipe- 
heated  hotbed  may  be  likened  to  a  greenhouse  bench, 
and  the  arrangement  of  piping  for  the  two  should  be 
similar.  From  two  to  four  steam-  or  water-pipes  are 
carried  underneath  the  bed.  If,  however,  one  has 
plenty  of  exhaust  steam,  which  is  usually  under  con- 
siderable pressure,  it  may  be  carried  directly  through 
the  soil  in  ordinary  drain  pipes.  It  will  rarely  pay 


Fig.  17.    Pipe-heated  hotbed. 


64  The   Principles   of   Vegetable  Gardening 

to  put  in  a  hot  water  or  steam  heater  for  the  express 
purpose  of  heating  hotbeds,  for  if  such  an  expense  is 
incurred,  it  will  be  better  to  make  a  forcing -house. 

Flue-heated  beds. — Hotbeds  may  be  heated  with  hot 
air  flues  with  very  good  results.  A  home-made  brick 
furnace  may  be  constructed  in  a  pit  at  one  end  of  the 
run  and  underneath  a  shed,  and  the  smoke  .and  hot 
air,  instead  of  being  carried  directly  upwards,  are 
carried  through  a  slightly  rising  horizontal  pipe  which 
runs  underneath  the  beds.  For  some  distance  from 
the  furnace,  this  flue  may  be  made  of  brick  or  unvit- 
rified  sewer  pipe,  but  stovepipe  may  be  used  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  run.  The  chimney  is  ordinarily  at 
the  farther  end  of  the  run  of  beds.  It  should  be 
high,  in  order  to  secure  a  good  draft.  If  the  run  of 
beds  is  long,  there  should  be  a  rise  in  the  underlying 
pipe  of  at  least  one  foot  in  twenty -five.  The  greater 
the  rise  in  this  pipe,  the  more  perfect  will  be  the 
draft.  If  the  runs  are  not  too  long,  the  underlying 
pipe  may  return  underneath  the  beds  and  enter  a 
chimney  directly  over  the  back  end  of  the  furnace, 
and  such  a  chimney,  being  warmed  from  the  furnace, 
will  ordinarily  have  an  excellent  draft.  The  underly- 
ing pipe  should  occupy  a  free  space  or  pit  beneath  the 
beds,  and  whenever  it  lies  near  to  the  floor  of  the  bed 
or  is  very  hot,  it  should  be  covered  with  asbestos 
cloth. 

Glazing. —  The  most  satisfactory  glass  for  use  in 
hotbed  and  coldframe  sash  is  double -thick,  second- 
quality  grade;  and  12 -inch  panes  are  ordinarily  wide 
enough,  and  suffer  comparatively  little  in  breakage. 


Covers  for  Hotbeds  65 

For  coldframes,  however,  various  oiled  papers  and 
water -proof  cloths*  may  be  used,  particularly  for 
plants  which  are  started  little  in  advance  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  season.  For  late  work,  cloth  is  often  batter 
than  glass,  because  the  beds  do  not  become  so  hot 
and  dry.  When  these  materials  are  used,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  have  expensive  sash,  but  rectangular 
frames  made  from  strips  of  pine  seven -eighths  inch 
thick  and  2%  inches  wide,  halved  together  at  the  cor- 
ners and  each  corner  reinforced  by  a  square  carriage- 
corner,  such  as  is  used  by  carriage -makers  to  secure 
the  corners  of  buggy  boxes.  These  corners  can  be 
bought  by  the  pound  at  hardware  stores.  The  glass 
is  bedded  in  putty.  No  putty  should  be  run  above 
the  panes,  because  it  will  soon  be  loosened  by  the 
freezing  of  the  water  which  collects  under  it.  The 
panes  should  be  lapped,  not  butted. 

Hotbed  covers.  —  Some  protection,  other  than  the 
glass,  must  be  given  to  early  hotbeds.  They  need 
covering  on  every  cold  night,  and  sometimes  during 

*  There  are  water-proof  hotbed  cloths  in  the  market.     Or  one  may  make 
his  own  by  using  one  of  the  following  formulas : 

1.  Use  a  sash  without  bars,  and  stretch  wires  or  strings  across  it  to  serve 
as  a  rest  for  the  paper.     Procure  stout  but  thin  manila  wrapping-paper,  and 
paste  it  firmly  on  the  sash  with  fresh  flour  paste.     Dry  in  a  warm  place  and 
then  wipe  the  paper  with  a  damp  sponge  to  cause  it  to  stretch  evenly.     Dry 
again  and  then  apply  boiled  linseed  oil  to  both  sides  of  the  paper,  and  dry 
again  in  a  warm  place. 

2.  Saturate  cloth  or  tough,  thin  manila  paper  with  pure  raw  linseed  oil. 

3.  Dissolve  1%  pounds  white  soap  in  1  quart  water ;  in  another  quart  dis- 
solve 1/4  ounces  gum  arabic  and  5  ounces  glue.     Mix  the  two  liquids,  warm, 
and  soak  the  paper,  hanging  it  up  to  dry.    Used  mostly  for  paper. 

4.  Three  pints  pale  linseed  oil ;    1  ounce  sugar  of  lead  ;   4  ounces  white 
rosin.     Grind  and  mix  the  sugar  of   lead  in  a  little  oil,  then  add  the  other 
materials  and  heat  in  an  iron  kettle.     Apply  hot  with  a  brush.     Used  for 
muslin . 

E 


66  The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

the  entire  day  in  very  severe  weather.  Very  good  ma- 
terial for  covering  the  sash  is  matting,  such  as  is 
used  for  carpeting  floors.  Old  pieces  of  carpet  may 
also  be  used.  Burlaps  makes  excellent  cover.  It  may 
be  doubled ;  and  it  may  have  straw,  shavings  or  wool 
quilted  in  it.  Various  hotbed  mattings  are  sold  by 
dealers  in  gardeners'  supplies. 

Gardeners  often  make  mats  of  rye  straw.  Such 
mats  are  thick  and  serviceable,  and  if  they  are  kept 
dry  they  will  last  for  years.  They  are  bulky  to  store 
and  heavy  to  handle,  however, 
and  they  are  not  used  as  much 
as  formerly.  There  are  various 
methods  of  making  these  straw 
mats,  but  Fig.  18  illustrates  one 
of  the  best.  A  frame  is  made 
after  the  manner  of  a  saw-horse, 
with  a  double  top,  and  tarred 
or  marline  twine  is  used  for 

Fig.  18.    Making  straw-mats. 

securing  the  strands  of   straw. 

It  is  customary  to  use  six  runs  of  this  warp.  Twelve 
spools  of  string  are  provided,  six  hanging  on  either 
side.  Some  persons  wind  the  cord  on  two  twenty- 
penny  nails,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  these  nails  being 
held  together  at  one  end  by  wire  which  is  secured  in 
notches  filed  into  them.  The  other  ends  of  the  nails 
are  free,  and  allow  the  string  to  be  caught  between 
them,  thus  preventing  the  balls  from  unwinding  as 
they  hang  from  the  frame.  Two  wisps  of  straight  rye 
straw  are  secured  and  laid  upon  the  frame,  with  the 
butt  ends  outward  and  the  heads  overlapping.  Two 


Coldframes  67 

opposite  spools  are  then  brought  up  and  a  hard  knot 
is  tied  at  each  point.  The  projecting  butts  of  the 
straw  are  then  cut  off  with  a  hatchet,  and  the  mat  is 
allowed  to  drop  through  to  receive  the  next  pair  of 
wisps.  In  making  these  mats,  it  is  essential  that  the 
rye  contains  no  ripe  grain  ;  otherwise  it  attracts  the 
mice.  It  is  best  to  grow  rye  for  this  especial  purpose, 
and  to  cut  it  before  the  grain  is  in  the  milk,  so  that 
the  straw  does  not  need  to  be  threshed. 

In  addition  to  these  coverings  of  straw  or  matting, 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  provide  board  shutters  to 
protect  the  beds,  particularly  if  the  plants  are  started 
very  early.  These  shutters  are  made  of  half-inch  or 
five -eighths  inch  pine  lumber,  and  are  the  same  size 
as  the  sash  —  3x6  feet.  They  are  used  above  the 
matting  to  keep  it  dry  and  to  prevent  it  from  blowing 
off.  In  some  cases  they  are  used  without  matting. 

4.     COLDFRAMES    AND    FORCING -HILLS 

A  coldframe  has  no  bottom  heat,  except  that  which 
it  receives  from  the  sun  :  otherwise  it  is  like  a  hot- 
bed. There  are  three  general  purposes  for  which  a 
coldframe  is  used  :  (1)  for  the  starting  of  plants  early 
in  spring ;  (2)  for  receiving  partially  hardened  plants 
which  have  been  started  earlier  in  hotbeds  and  forcing - 
houses  ;  (3)  for  wintering  young  cabbages,  lettuce  and 
other  hardy  plants  which  are  sown  in  the  fall. 

Coldframes  are  ordinarily  placed  near  the  buildings, 
and  the  plants  are  transplanted  into  the  field  when 
settled  weather  comes.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are 


68  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

made  directly  in  the  field  where  the  plants  are  to 
remain,  and  the  frames,  and  not  the  plants,  are  re- 
moved. When  used  for  this  latter  purpose,  the  frames 
are  made  very  cheap  by  running  two  rows  of  parallel 
planks  through  the  field  at  a  distance  of  six  feet 
apart.  The  plank  on  the  north  is  ordinarily  10  to 
12  inches  wide,  and  that  on  the  south  8  to  10  inches. 
These  planks  are  held  in  place  by  stakes,  and  the 


Fig.  19.    A  span-roof  coldframe,  or  cold  forcing-house. 

sash  are  laid  across  them.  Seeds  of  radishes,  beets, 
lettuce,  and  the  like,  are  then  sown  beneath  the  sash, 
and  when  settled  weather  arrives  the  sash  and  planks 
are  removed  and  the  plants  are  growing  naturally  in 
the  field.  Half-hardy  plants,  like  those  mentioned, 
may  be  started  two  or  three  weeks  in  advance  of  the 
normal  season  by  this  means. 

When  the  heat  is  spent  from  hotbeds,  they  become 
coldframes.  They  can  then  be  used,  if  empty,  for  the 
starting  of  late  plants  ;  or  the  plants  may  be  hardened- 


Forcing  -  Mils  69 

off  in  them  as  they  cool,  thus,  perhaps,  obviating  the 
necessity  of  transplanting  to  other  frames. 

Span -roof  coldframes  (Fig.  19)  are  very  useful,  as 
they  allow  of  better  and  more  uniform  conditions  for 
the  growing  of  plants  than  the  ordinary  frame.  They 
are  covered  with  hotbed  sash  laid  on  a  framework, 
and  the  sashes  pulled  down  from  the  top  for  venti- 
lation. They  are  essentially  forcing -houses,  however, 
and  the  discussion  of  them  is  foreign  to  the  purpose 
of  this  volume. 

Forcing -Mils. — A  forcing- 
hill  is  an  arrangement  by 
means  of  which  a  single  plant 
or  a  single  hill  of  plants  may 
be  forced  where  it  perma- 
nently stands.  It  is  a  small 
coldframe.  This  type  of  forc- 
ing may  be  applied  to  per- 
ennial plants,  as  rhubarb  and 

Fig.  20.     Forcing  of  rhubarb. 

asparagus,  or  to  annuals,  as 

melons  and  cucumbers.  Fig.  20  illustrates  a  common 
method  of  hastening  the  growth  of  rhubarb  in  the 
spring.  A  box  made  with  four  removable  sides,  two  of 
which  are  shown  in  end  section  in  the  figure,  is  placed 
around  the  plant  in  the  fall.  The  inside  of  the  box 
is  filled  with  straw  or  litter,  and  the  outside  is  banked 
thoroughly  with  any  refuse,  to  prevent  the  ground  from 
freezing.  When  it  is  desired  to  start  the  plants,  the 
covering  is  removed  from  both  the  inside  and  outside 
of  the  box,  and  hot  manure  is  piled  around  the  box 
to  its  top.  If  the  weather  is  still  cold;  dry,  light  leaves 


70          The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

or  straw  may  be  placed  inside  the  box,  or  a  pane  or  sash 
of  glass  may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  box,  to  answer 
the  purpose  of  a  coldframe.  Rhubarb,  asparagus,  sea- 
kale  and  similar  plants  may  be  advanced  from  two  to 
four  weeks  by  means  of  this  method  of  forcing.  Some 
gardeners  use  old  barrels  or  half -barrels  in  place  of  the 
box.  The  box,  however,  is  better  and  handier,  and  the 
sides  can  be  stored  for  future  use. 

Plants  which  require  a  long  season  in  which  to 
mature,  and  which  do  not  transplant  readily,  as  melons 
and  cucumbers,  may  be  planted  in  forcing-hills  in  the 
field.  One  of  these  hills  is  shown  in  Fig.  21.  The 


Fig.  21.    Forcing-hill. 

frame  or  mold  is  shown  at  the  left.  This  mold  is  a 
box  with  flaring  sides  and  no  top  or  bottom,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  handle.  This  frame  is  -placed  with  the 
small  end  down  at  the  point  where  the  seeds  are  to 
be  planted,  and  the  earth  is  hilled  up  about  it  and 
firmly  packed  with  the  feet.  The  mold  is  then  with- 
drawn, and  a  pane  of  glass  is  laid  on  the  top  of 
the  mound  to  concentrate  the  sun's  rays,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  bank  from  washing  down  with  the  rains.  A 
clod  of  earth  or  a  stone  may  be  placed  on  the  pane 
to  hold  it  down.  This  type  of  forcing -hill  is  not 
much  used,  because  the  bank  of  earth  is  likely  to  wash 


Hand  -  boxes  71 

away,  and  heavy  rain  occurring  when  the  glass. is  off 
will  fill  the  hill  with  water  and  drown  the  plant. 
However,  it  can  be  used  to  very  good  advantage  in 
cases  in  which  the  gardener  can  give  it  close  attention. 

A  forcing -hill  is  sometimes  made  by  digging  a  hole 
in  the  ground  and  planting  the  seeds  in  the  bottom 
of  it,  placing  the  pane  of  glass  upon  a  slight  ridge  or 
mound  which  is  made  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  method  is  less  desirable  than  the  other,  because 
the  seeds  are  placed  in  the  poorest  and  coldest  soil,  and 
the  hole  is  very  likely 
to  fill  with  water  in  the 
early  days  of  spring. 

An  excellent  type 
of  forcing -hill  is  made 
by  the  use  of  the  hand- 
box,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
22.  This  is  a  rectan- 
gular box,  without  top 

Fig.  22.    Hand-box. 

or  bottom,  and  a  pane 

of  glass  is  slipped  into  a  groove  at  the  top.  The  earth 
is  banked  slightly  about  the  box,  in  order  to  hold  it 
against  winds  and  to  prevent  the  water  from  running 
into  it.  If  these  boxes  are  made  of  good  lumber  and 
painted,  they  will  last  for  many  years.  Any  size  of 
glass  may  be  used,  but  a  10  x  12  pane  is  as  good  as 
any  for  general  purposes. 

After  the  plants  are  thoroughly  established  in  these 
forcing -hills,  and  the  weather  is  settled,  the  protection 
is  wholly  removed,  and  the  plants  grow  normally  in 
the  open.  Forcing -hills  are  not  well  adapted  to  large- 


72          The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

area  work,  because  they  require  too  much  time  in  the 
tending,  being  scattered  over  much  territory.  Neither 
do  they  have  much  advantage  of  protection  from 
windbreaks,  and,  containing  a  less  body  of  air,  they 
do  not  give  as  early  results  as  well-made  coldframes. 

5.     THE   MANAGEMENT   OF   FRAMES 

Only  by  experience  can  one  learn  how  to  manage  a 
hotbed.  There  are  a  few  principles  and  cautions,  how- 
ever, which  may  enable  one  to  arrive  at  this  knowledge 
sooner  and  with  less  loss  than  by  blind  experience 
alone.  The  things  to  be  sought,  so  far  as  the  plants 
are  concerned,  are  specimens  (1)  which  are  ready  at 
the  required  season,  (2)  which  are  stocky,  and  (3) 
which  have  made  a  continuous  healthy  growth.  The 
things  to  avoid  are  (1)  the  chilling  of  the  plants; 
(2)  too  hot  and  close  atmosphere,  which  tends  to  make 
the  plants  soft ;  (3)  crowding  of  the  plants,  which 
tends  to  make  them  weak  and  spindling ;  (4)  growing 
plants  too  far  from  the  light,  which  also  tends  to  make 
them  soft  and  weak ;  (5)  the  scalding  of  the  plants 
by  the  sun,  an  injury  which  is  very  likely  to  occur 
when  the  sun  comes  out  after  a  long  "spell"  of  dark 
or  cold  weather ;  (6)  the  wilting  of  the  plants,  due  to 
too  great  heat  and  too  little  moisture. 

Translated  into  the  actual  management  of  a  hotbed, 
these  objects  may  be  grouped  as  follows  :  (1)  main- 
taining the  heat;  (2)  watering;  (3)  ventilating;  (4) 
hardening-off ;  (5)  transplanting.  Above  all  things, 
the  plant  should  be  stocky  when  it  is  to  be  put 


Maintaining   the   Heat  73 

in  the  field.  A  stocky  plant  is  one  which  is  com- 
paratively short  and  thick,  is  able  to  stand  alone,  and 
which  has  a  normal  bright  green  color  throughout. 
Plants  which  are  not  stocky  are  said  to  be  "leggy"  or 
"drawn,"  since  their  general  tendency  is  to  grow  too 
long  and  weak  for  their  bulk.  A  stocky  plant,  however, 
may  be  stunted.  The  ideal  plant  is  one  which  is  both 
stocky  and  vigorous. 

The  maintenance  of  the  heat  in  the  ordinary  hotbed 
depends  primarily  on  the  quality  and  the  amount 
of  manure ;  but  one  can  do  something  by  subsequent 
management  to  maintain  it.  Heat  will  ordinarily  fail 
sooner  if  the  hotbed  is  above  the  ground  and  much 
exposed  to  winds.  It  may  also  be  lessened  by  careless 
watering,  particularly  by  soaking  the  manure.  As 
already  said  (page  57),  manure  which  is  too  heavy  and 
concentrated  may  heat  violently,  and  wetting  it  may 
tend  to  cool  it  to  the  point  at  which  plants  c'an  grow; 
but  a  better  way  is  to  mix  leaves  or  other  litter  with 
the  manure,  thereby  preventing  too  rapid  fermenta- 
tion. Not  only  should  the  heat  from  the  fermenting 
manure  be  maintained,  but  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  too  much  of  the  heat  from  escaping.  This  is 
an  important  caution  in  very  cold  nights  and  windy 
weather,  at  which  time  the  frame  should  be  protected 
by  mats  or  other  covering.  A  cold  and  wet  soil  also 
tends  to  lessen  the  heat  in  the  hotbed.  For  this 
reason,  hotbeds  should  always  be  placed  in  a  sandy  or 
gravelly  place,  if  possible ;  or  if  not,  the  greatest 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  insure  perfect  drainage. 

Watering   should   be   done  with   caution.     Careless 


74  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

watering  tends  (1)  to  pack  or  to  puddle  the  soil,  (2) 
to  chill  the  plants,  and  (3)  to  soak  the  manure  and  to 
check  its  fermentation.  If  watering  is  done  from  a 
hose,  the  danger  of  packing  the  soil  is  greater  than 
when  a  watering  pot  is  used,  since  the  water  is  applied 
with  greater  force.  Hotbed  soils  should  be  rather 
loose  and  fibrous  in  order  to  prevent  the  puddling.  As 
compared  with  outdoor  or  field  conditions,  the  amount 
of  water  applied  to  a  hotbed  is  usually  excessive,  and 
the  physical  texture  of  the  soil  is  likely  to  be  injured 
unless  one  exercises  considerable  care.  It  is  better,  as 
a  rule,  not  to  water  hotbeds  towards  night  or  when  the 
temperature  is  falling,  for  the  application  of  water  and 
the  subsequent  evaporation  tend  to  still  further  cool 
the  bed.  It  is  particularly  inadvisable  to  allow  the 
plants  to  go  into  the  night  with  wet  foliage.  This 
caution  applies  with  especial  force  to  cucumbers, 
melons  and  other  "  warm "  plants ;  and  also  to  the 
early  season,  when  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  frame 
close.  It  is' better,  as  a  rule,  to  water  in  the  morning, 
or  at  least  when  there  is  still  enough  sun  heat  left  to 
warm  the  soil  before  nightfall.  It  is  well  also  to  avoid 
ice-cold  water,  for  the  application  of  water  at  such 
temperature  is  a  decided  check  to  plants.  The  water 
should  have  a  temperature  of  60°  to  65°,  if  possible, 
particularly  for  warm -growing  plants  and  early  in  the 
season.  Avoid  dribbling  or  merely  wetting  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  The  soil  should  be  wet  thoroughly  at  each 
watering,  and  not  wet  again  until  the  plants  need  it ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  one  should  avoid  drenching  the 
soil. 


Ventilating 


75 


Fig.  23.     Ventilating  the  hotbed. 


Ventilation  is  important,  (1)  to  dry  the  air,  (2) 
to  aid  in  controlling  the  temperature.  Plants  which  are 
kept  close  and  wet  tend  to  grow  too  tall  and  soft,  and 
to  lack  in  stockiness.  On  pleasant  and  sunny  days, 
ventilation  should  be  given  by 
raising  the  sash,  resting  it  on 
a  notched  block,  (Fig.  23), 
or  by  sliding  down  the  sash. 
The  general  tendency  with  be- 
ginners is  to  ventilate  too  little 
rather  than  too  much.  One  is 
likely  to  judge  the  temperature 
by  the  wind  and  air  about  his 
face  and  ears,  whereas  the  hot- 
bed, being  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  is  considerably 

warmer  and  more  protected.  Whenever  the  air  in  the 
bed  is  so  moist  that  drops  of  water  collect  on  the  panes, 
ventilation  should  be  given  if  the  temperature  will  per- 
mit. In  fact,  it  is  the  aim  of  good  gardeners  not  to 
have  the  atmosphere  very  moist  when  the  temperature 
is  low  and  ventilation  cannot  be  given.  As  the  plants 
grow,  more  and  more  ventilation  should  be  given  until 
finally  in  sunny  days  the  sash  can  be  stripped  from  the 
frames.  In  this  way  the  plants  become  accustomed  to 
the  lower  temperature  and  to  normal  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  ;  they  become  "  hardened."  Careful  atten- 
tion to  ventilation  is  one  of  the  important  means  of 
making  plants  stocky. 

Hardening -off  is  also  promoted  by  giving  the  plants 
plenty  of  room.     As  soon  as  they  begin  to  crowd,  some 


76  The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

of  the  plants  may  be  pulled  out,  or  better,  all  the 
plants  may  be  transplanted.  At  the  transplanting,  it 
may  be  well  to  transfer  the  plants  to  a  somewhat 
cooler  and  more  airy  frame.  With  celery  and  some 
other  plants,  it  is  often  allowable  to  shear  the  tops, 
cutting  off  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  of  the  length  of  the 
plant  in  order  to  make  it  branch  and  thicken.  Plants 
which  are  grown  in  pots,  berry  boxes,  oyster  buckets, 
and  the  like,  are  likely  to  be  more  stocky  than  those 
which  are  grown  directly  in  the  soil  of  the  hotbed, 
since  they  have  more  room;  and  such  plants  may  not 
need  transplanting.  If  it  is  found  that  the  heat  is 
failing,  it  will  be  necessary  to  harden -off  the  plants 
more  rapidly.  Some  plants,  of  which  lettuce,  cabbage 
and  cauliflower  are  the  common  examples,  can  be  so 
completely  hardened -off  as  to  be  able  to  withstand 
considerable  frost ;  and  in  this  toughened  condition 
they  may  be  carried  over  two  or  three  weeks  of  cold 
weather  before  it  is  safe  to  transplant  them  into  the 
open.  The  general  tendency  is  to  do  little  transplant- 
ing in  the  frames  because  of  the  high  price  of  labor, 
but  transplanting  is  always  advantageous  to  the  plants, 
particularly  if  they  are  started  very  early. 

In  very  cold  weather,  it  is  sometimes  -necessary  to 
keep  the  mats  and  shutters  on  the  hotbeds  for  two  or 
three  days  at  a  time.  During  this  time,  when  the 
plants  are  in  comparative  darkness,  they  are  likely  to 
become  somewhat  soft  and  tender,  and  great  care  must 
be  exercised  that  they  are  not  scalded  when  the  covers 
are  taken  off  and  the  sun  comes  out.  The  stockier 
and  the  tougher  the  plants  are  grown,  the  less  is  the 


How   Early   to    Sow  77 

danger  of  sun -scalding ;  but  after  a  long  period  of 
cloudy  weather,  this  danger  is  very  great  and  the 
operator  must  watch  his  beds  closely. 

Hotbeds  are  more  difficult  to  manage,  as  a  rule, 
than  forcing -houses,  since  the  operator  can  be  inside 
the  forcing -house  whatever  the  weather  may  be.  In 
very  cold  and  windy  weather,  hotbeds  cannot  be 
opened.  The  operator  works  from  the  outside  rather 
than  from  the  inside.  In  many  of  the  plains  regions, 
the  strong  winds  make  it  difficult  to  handle  the  hot- 
bed sash.  In  such  case,  the  cheap  forcing -house 
structure  made  of  frames  and  heated  either  with  fer- 
menting manure  or  with  pipes  is  more  advantageous 
(page  62). 

Beginners  are  likely  to  start  a  hotbed  too  soon.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  age  of  the  plant  does 
not  count  for  so  much  as  its  stockiness  and  vigor. 
If,  therefore,  the  hotbed  is  started  so  early  that  the 
plants  have  to  be  "slowed  up"  and  stunted  in  order  to 
hold  them  until  the  field  is  ready,  very  little  is 
gained.  In  the  northern  states,  it  is  usually  thought 
that  cabbages  and  cauliflower  may  be  started  with 
profit  about  six  weeks  before  the  field  is  expected  to 
be  ready ;  tomatoes,  six  to  seven  weeks ;  onions  and 
beets,  four  to  six  weeks. 

Wintering  fall-sown  plants. —  It  has  been  said 
(page  67)  that  one  use  of  coldframes  is  to  carry 
fall- sown  plants  over  the  winter  and  to  have  them 
ready  for  transplanting  into  the  field  very  early  in 
the  spring.  The  plants  are  not  to  grow  during  winter: 
they  are  only  protected.  Having  become  inured  to 


78  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

cold,  they  may  be  set  in  the  field  the  minute  the  soil  is 
fit.  Hardy  plants  (lettuce,  cabbage,  kale,  cauliflower) 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  Seeds  are  sown  in  late  fall, 
and  when  the  plants  have  grown  four  or  five  weeks 
they  are  ready  to  be  transplanted  into  the  frames. 
It  is  not  well  that  they  make  much  growth  in  bulk 
after  transplanting  to  the  frames  ;  but  they  should  se- 
cure a  good  root -hold  before  freezing  weather  comes. 
Some  persons  sow  the  seeds  directly  in  the  frames,  but 
better  results  are  usually  attained  if  the  plants  are 
made  extra  stocky  by  transplanting.  All  soft,  weak 
and  imperfect  plants  are  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the 
winter.  Plants  which  are  very  young  and  flabby  usu- 
ally perish.  Those  which  are  too  old  tend  to  run  to 
seed  when  spring  weather  comes.  Only  by  experience 
can  one  determine  the  proper  age  at  which  the  plants 
should  go  into  the  winter ;  and  this  experience  is 
likely  to  vary  with  different  varieties  of  the  same  vege- 
tables. A  plant  which  has  begun  to  thicken  up  and 
to  show  signs  of  a  tendency  to  form  a  head  will  nearly 
always  run  to  seed  in  the  spring,  for  it  seems  not  to 
have  the  power  to  resume  active  vegetative  growth 
after  its  long  check.  Cabbage  plants  with  three  or 
four  true  leaves  should  be  able  to  pass  the  winter  and 
to  give  satisfactory  results  the  following  year.  The 
novice  should  undertake  these  experiments  in  a  small 
way,  particularly  in  the  North,  where  the  practice  is 
not  common  and  the  results  are  precarious. 

Keep  the  frames  uncovered  until  stiff  freezing 
weather  comes.  Then  use  sash  and  covers.  Gradually 
the  plants  and  soil  may  freeze ;  but  exercise  care  that 


Wintering   Fall -sown   Plants  79 

the  bright  sun  does  not  strike  frozen  plants  and  thaw 
them  out  quickly.  Give  freely  of  ventilation.  Strip 
the  frames  on  all  fine  days.  If  the  ground  is  frozen,  the 
plants  may  stand  several  days  under  a  cover  of  snow 
on  the  sash ;  but  if  the  ground  is  soft,  so  that  some 
root  action  goes  on,  the  plants  should  not  be  kept 
close  and  dark  for  more  than  a  day  or  two. 

In  the  middle  states,  the  plants  are  sometimes 
carried  over  winter  without  frames,  if  they  are  in  a 
protected  place.  As  far  south  as  Norfolk,  cabbage  are 
planted  in  the  field  in  late  fall.  Check  all  winter 
growth,  prevent  sudden  thawing,  avoid  sun -scalding. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   SOfL   AND  ITS    TREATMENT 

MARKET,  climate,  soil, — these  are  the  leading  factors 
in  determining  the  location  of  a  market- garden. 

A  good  market  -  gardening  soil  is  one  which  is 
"quick."  It  warms  up  early  in  spring;  it  comes 
quickly  into  workable  condition  after  a  rain  ;  it  is  easy 
to  keep  in  good  tilth ;  it  responds  quickly  to  fertilizing 
materials.  Its  physical  condition  is  more  important 
than  its  original  richness  in  plant-food  :  the  latter  can 
be  added.  That  is,  in  the  determination  of  a  soil  for 
market- gardening  purposes,  two  coordinate  factors  are 
to  be  considered, —  the  texture  or  physical  make-up, 
and  the  content  of  plant-food. 

Nearly  all  general  market- gardens  are  on  sandy 
loams.  There  are  a  few  crops,  of  which  onions  and 
celery  are  examples,  which  demand  particular  types  of 
soils  for  best  results  ;  but  if  one  has  a  deep  and  uni- 
form sandy  soil,  he  can  make  an  ideal  garden  of  it, 
other  things  being  equal.  If  the  land  is  well  drained, 
and  if  rainfall  is  sufficient,  this  sandy  land  can  be 
made  immensely  productive  by  a  combination  of  three 
things, — good  tillage,  the  incorporation  of  plant- fiber 
or  humus,  the  direct  addition  of  plant-food.  When 
thus  ameliorated,  it  becomes  a  sandy  loam. 

(80) 


Soils  81 

The  soil  to  avoid  is  hard  clay.  It  is  cold  and  late. 
Plants  start  slowly  in  it.  It  cannot  be  worked  when 
either  wet  or  dry  ;  and  the  period  in  which  it  can  be 
tilled  is  so  short  that  much  labor 'and  equipment  are 
required  to  enable  one  to  handle  it  quickly  and  effi- 
ciently. .Clay  is  excellent  for  some  fruits  (particularly 
pears  and  plums),  and  for  some  general  farm  crops; 
but  it  is  not  the  land  for  vegetable-growing.  How- 
ever, a  friable  clay  loam  may  be  excellent :  this  loamy 
condition  may  be  obtained  from  hard  clay  soil  by  judi- 
cious tillage,  the  incorporation  of  humus,  the  addition 
of  amendments  in  special  cases,  and  by  underdraining. 
Clay  loams  are  good  lands  for  main-season  crops  of 
many  kinds,  as  cabbage,  pea,  bean. 

Reclaimed  swamps  usually  afford  excellent  soil  for 
vegetables,  if  the  area  can  be  thoroughly  well  drained, 
so  that  the  land  -is  "early,"  and  if  the  vegetable 
matter  or  peat  is  well  decomposed  and  comminuted. 
Soils  which  are  nearly  all  muck  have  little  body,  and 
suffer  from  drought ;  these  soils  are  mostly  the  deposit 
of  peat  and  moss  bogs.  The  fine  loams  which  have 
accumulated  in  beds  of  shallow  ponds  or  lakes  are 
usually  ideal  vegetable -garden  lands,  providing  the 
area  is  not  too  frosty. 

When  the  object  in  vegetable -gardening  is  to  grow  very 
early  crops,  it  is  important  to  have  quick- acting  land.  Such  a 
soil  contains  a  large  amount  of  sand  in  its  composition.  *  *  * 
When  the  intention  is  to  raise  cabbages,  potatoes,  turnips,  beets, 
etc.,  for  marketing  in  the  autumn  and  for  crops  that  require 
but  a  short  time  to  mature  or  that  prefer  a  cool  location,  a  good 
clayey  loam  is  generally  the  best. — S.  B.  Green,  Vegetable- Gar- 
dening, Second  Ed.,  8. 


82  The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

The  best  soils  are  of  a  friable  and  loamy  texture ;  the  worst, 
those  of  a  very  light  sandy  or  of  a  stiff  clayey  description.— 
Robert  Buist,  The  Family  Kitchen  Gardener,  5. 

The  soil  for  growing  vegetables  and  seeds  should  be  as 
near  as  possible  a  deep  loam ;  it  may  be  more  or  less  sandy,  but 
avoid  clay,  or  anything  heavier  than  a  clay  loam. — Francis  Brill, 
Farm -Gardening  and  Seed -Growing,  New  Ed.,  11. 

Earth  of  a  consistence  that  will  hold  water  the  longest 
without  becoming  hard  when  dry,  is  of  all  others,  the  best  adapted 
for  raising  the  generality  of  plants  in  the  greatest  perfection. 
This  last  described  soil  is  called  loam,  and  is  a  medium  earth, 
between  the  extremes  of  clay  and  sand.  —  Bridgeman,  Young 
Gardener's  Assistant,  Seventh  Ed.,  10. 

Garden  vegetables,  as  a  rule,  will  thrive  best,  other  things 
being  equal,  on  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  with  an  open  sub -soil. 
Almost  any  character  of  soil,  with  the  exception  of  pure  clay, 
can  be  brought  up  to  a  high  state  of  fertility  by  adopting  the 
proper  methods. — P.  T.  Quinn,  Money  in  the  Garden,  14. 

The  soil  should  be  a  warm,  sandy  loam. — T.  Greiner,  How 
to  Make  the  Garden  Pay,  Second  Ed.,  30. 

Sandy  loam,  with  a  sandy  or  gravelly  sub -soil  should  be 
selected.  Such  land  is  far  better  than  soils  resting  on  clay,  not 
only  because  its  nature  is  warmer,  but  because  it  is  naturally 
well  drained.  A  clay  sub-soil,  at  least  until  deep  drains  have 
been  sunk  and  operated  a  considerable  time,  will  render  any 
land  cold,  as  it  retains  the  moisture. — W.  W.  Eawson,  Success  in 
Market- Gardening,  12. 

If  in  the  selection  of  the  land,  one  is  confined  to  a  single 
soil,  he  should  select  one  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  organic  and 
inorganic  matter ;  a  light,  deep,  sandy  loam,  with  plenty  of 
humus  or  vegetable  matter. — A.  Oemler,  Truck -Farming  at  the 
South,  10. 

The  soil  may  be  anything  but  brick  clay,  theoretically  a 
light,  sandy  loam  is  best,  but  here,  again,  astonishing  results  are 
often  obtained  on  forbidding  soils;  for  instance,  on  sticky  red 
clays  and  sands,  the  latter  seemingly  no  better  than  those  of 


Soils  83 

the  seashore. — Burnet  Landreth,  Market- Gardening  and  Farm 
Notes,  18. 

The  characters  already  cited  point  clearly  to  what  is  com- 
monly designated  as  a  rather  light  soil  as  best  for  vegetable 
growing.—  E.  J.  Wickson,  The  California  Vegetables,  43. 

The  soil  which  is  best  suited  for  the  production  of  vegeta- 
bles is  what  is  termed  a  rich  loam,  fully  a  foot  in  depth,  with  a 
sandy  or  gravelly  sub -soil,  through  which  the  surplus  water 
readily  niters. — D.  W.  Beadle,  Canadian  Fruit,  Flower  and 
Kitchen  Gardener,  192. 

Quel  sol  convient  au  jardin?  Je  reponds  que  partout  ou  il 
y  a  de  la  terre  vege"tale,  Fe"tablissement  d'un  jardin  y  est 
possible.  II  n'en  est  point  du  jardin  comme  de  la  ferme; 
celle-ci,  en  raison  sourtout  de  son  e"tendue,  conservera  toujours 
la  qualite  de  son  sol  primitif,  tandis  que  pour  le  jardin,  il  est 
toujours  assez  facile  par  des  amendments,  des  engrais  et  divers 
precedes  de  culture,  d'alterer  ou  de  changer  sa  qualite  suivant 
le  besoin. — Provancher,  Le  Verger,  169  (Quebec.} 

Vegetable- gardening  land  should  be  rich.  It  should 
contain  much  plant -food  material ;  and  this  material 
should  be  quickly  available,  for  on  its  availability 
depends  the  earliness  or  "quickness"  of  the  land, 
to  a  great  extent.  The  plant  should  grow  quickly  and 
continuously.  Slow-growing  and  intermittent -grow- 
ing vegetables  may  not  only  fail  to  reach  the  market 
or  the  table  at  the  desired  time,  but  they  are  usually 
poor  in  quality.  In  order  to  secure  this  quick  growth, 
the  land  should  be  very  thoroughly  prepared  before 
the  plants  are  put  on  it ;  and  in  most  cases,  an  appli- 
cation of  concentrated  (or  commercial)  fertilizer  will 
help. 

It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  secure  land  which 
is  already  in  productive  condition  than  to  take  that  of 


84  The    Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

inferior  quality  and  to  improve  it.  This  is  true  of  all 
intensive  farming  ;  for  intensive  farming  wants  quick, 
positive,  and  large  results.  The  closer  one  is  to  his 
market,  the  smaller  his  area,  and  the  greater  the  variety 
of  crops  which  he  is  to  grow,  the  greater  is  the  neces- 
sity of  securing  land  in  prime  condition. 

But  if  one  has  small  capital,  he  may  not  be  able  to 
secure  such  land.  In  such  case,  he  takes  land  which 
is  either  naturally  inferior  or  which  is  run  down.  It 
is  a  favorite  advice  of  the  market- gardening  writers 
to  avoid  run-down  lands.  It  is  said  to  be  imprac- 
ticable to  attempt  to  reclaim  them.  This  kind  of 
advice  has  been  over -emphasized.  If  run-out  land 
lies  right  and  is  naturally  well  drained,  it  can  be 
brought  into  profitable  condition,  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  with  comparatively  little  trouble  and  expense, 
if  only  the  person  goes  at  it  right.  It  requires  time 
and  patience.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  till  well  and 
to  add  fiber  (preferably  by  means  of  clover).  The 
common  notion  that  commercial  fertilizer  is  the  first 
resort  in  such  instances  is  in  most  cases  a  grievous 
error.  The  fertilizer  is  for  the  purpose  of  adding 
plant -food,  not  of  ameliorating  the  soil.  If  market- 
gardening  is  attempted  on  run-down  land,  the  gardener 
should  select  the  best  part  of  the  area  for,  his  more 
intensive  efforts,  giving  it  what  manure  he  has  and 
bestowing  upon  it  his  best  efforts  in  tillage.  The 
remainder  of  the  place  can  then  be  slowly  brought 
into  condition  by  cover- cropping,  rotation,  and  other 
cheaper  means.  Four  or  five  years,  at  the  outside, 
should  usually  suffice  to  bring  the  average  worn-out 


Drainage  85 

land  into  good  condition,  without  great  expenditure  of 
capital.  The  "run-down"  character  of  a  farm  is  usually 
more  a  matter  of  dilapidated  fences  and  buildings,  weedy 
fields  and  slovenly  appearance,  than  of  exhaustion  of 
plant -food  in  the  soil. 

1.    THE    AMELIORATION    OP    THE    LAND 

Land  that  is  "quick"  is  in  good  physical  condition. 
It  is  finely  pulverized,  "mealy,"  mellow,  deep.  It  is 
almost  useless  to  apply  expensive  plant -food  to  poorly 
tilled  and  intractable  land.  The  first  efforts,  therefore, 
must  be  given  to  drainage  tillage,  the  addition  of  fiber, 
rotation. 

Drainage. — The  best  drainage  is  that  which  is  pro- 
vided by  nature ;  that  is,  land  which  is  naturally  well 
drained  comes  into  condition  more  quickly,  as  a  rule, 
and  is  in  more  continuous  good  tilth  than  that  which 
it  is  necessary  to  drain  artificially.  However,  the  very 
best  results  may  be  secured  by  a  good  system  of  tile- 
drainage.  Underdraining  is  practiced  for  two  pur- 
poses— to  carry  off  the  superfluous  water,  and  to  im- 
prove the  physical  texture  of  the  soil.  All  low  and 
boggy  lands  need  to  be  drained  for  the  first  purpose. 
Very .  stiff  clay  lands,  which  are  normally  dry  and 
hard,  usually  can  be  much  improved  in  their  physical 
texture  by  a  good  system  of  underdrains.  The  philos- 
ophy of  this  is  simple.  If  water  stands  long  in  clay 
lands,  it  tends  to  cement  or  to  puddle  the  soil.  If  the 
superfluous  water  is  quickly  taken  off,  however,  this 
cementing  or  puddling  does  not  take  place.  The  soil 


86          The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

is  thereby  looser  or  more  friable.  This  friable  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  enables  it  to  hold  more  moisture 
than  when  it  is  hard  and  brick -like.  It  therefore 
results  that  draining  to  remove  the  superfluous  water 
puts  the  soil  in  condition  to  hold  more  capillary  mois- 
ture in  its  own  tissues,  and  improves  it  for  agricultural 
purposes.  For  vegetable -gardening  purposes,  particu- 
larly if  quickest  results  are  desired,  it  is  necessary  to 
underdrain  hard  clay  lands,  even  if  they  are  not  wet. 
It  makes  them  workable  early  in  the  spring  after  rains, 
and  enables  the  plants  to  obtain  a  quicker  foothold. 
These  same  lands  might  be  used  for  orchards,  how- 
ever, without  underdraining,  and  they  might  also  be 
very  productive  of  some  general  farm  crops  ;  but  in 
such  cases  the  crops  may  occupy  the  land  for  a  term 
of  years,  and  very  quick  and  early  results  are  not 
essential. 

For  temporary  purposes,  surface  drains  may  be 
used,  or  the  land  may  be  ridged  so  that  the  surface 
water  is  taken  off  in  the  dead -furrows.  This  surface 
drainage,  however,  results  only  in  carrying  off  super- 
fluous water  and  does  not  have  the  effect  of  amelio- 
rating the  land  in  the  way  in  which  underdrains  do. 

In  nearly  all  cases,  it  is  better  and  cheaper  in  the 
end  to  use  tile  underdrains.  Board  drains  are  some- 
times used,  but  they  are  not  so  efficient  nor  so  per- 
manent ;  and  in  the  East  they  are  often  more  expen- 
sive to  begin  with  than  the  tile  drains  are.  In  stony 
countries,  excellent  drains  may  be  made  by  partially 
filling  the  ditch  with  stones,  particularly  if  flat  stones 
are  to  be  had  so  that  a  conduit  can  be  laid  in  the 


Drainage  87 

bottom.  Such  drains  not  only  give  the  advantages 
of  underdrainage,  but  also  afford  a  means  of  dispos- 
ing of  superfluous  stone.  If  they  have  a  good  fall, 
and  care  is  exercised  not  to  fill  the  spaces  between 
the  stones  with  earth,  they  may  be  nearly  or  quite 
as  efficient  as  tile  drains.  The  deeper  the  drains, 
the  deeper  will  be  the  ameliorating  effect  on  the 
sod  and  the  greater  the  area  which  they  drain.  As  a 
matter  of  practice,  however,  it  is  found,  that  four 
feet  is  usually  the  maximum  depth,  and  about  three 
feet  the  minimum.  Wet  lands,  or  very  hard  clay 
lands,  should  have  drains  at  a  distance  of  not  more 
than  two  or  three  rods,  if  the  lands  are  to  be  put  in 
the  very  best  condition  for  market -gardening  purposes. 
It  may  be  advisable,  however,  to  use  such  lands  for 
the  later,  cheaper  and  general -purpose  crops  rather 
than  for  the  very  early  ones  if  the  gardener  has  other 
land  which  can  be  used  for  the  crops  which  are  de- 
sired for  the  early  market.  For  detailed  advice  on 
drainage,  the  readers  should  consult  special  books  on 
the  subject. 

Tillage. — At  the  present  time  the  great  emphasis  in 
agricultural  practice  is  placed  on  tillage.  We  have 
passed  through  that  era  in  our  development  in  which 
we  have  looked  to  recipes  and  special  practices  for  the 
improving  of  the  soil.  The  fundamental  thing  is  to 
till :  the  later  and  incidental  thing  is  to  fertilize  the 
land. 

We  till  (1)  to  prepare  the  soil  to  receive  the  crop, 
and  (2)  to  maintain  the  soil  in  good  condition  for  the 
growth  of  the  crop.  To  prepare  the  soil  for  the  crop, 


88          The  Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

the  land  should  be  loosened  and  pulverized  as  deep  as 
ordinary  roots  go.  To  maintain  the  soil  in  ideal  con- 
dition, the  surface  should  be  tilled  or  stirred  as  often 
as  it  becomes  crusted  or  compacted.  It  is  essential 
that  every  farmer  keep  in  mind  the  differences  between 
preparation -tillage  and  maintenance -tillage,  for  these 
ideas  are  associated  with  two  classes  of  effort.  Culti- 
vating should  be  thought  of  as  maintenance -tillage,  not 
as  preparation -tillage. 

1.  The  tillage  of  preparation  insists  that  the  land 
be  broken  and  pulverized.  The  depth  to  which  this 
pulverization  or  plowing  shall  extend  must  be  deter- 
mined for  each  particular  case:  it  depends  on  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  the  crop.  Land  which  is  very 
hard,  or  in  which  there  is  a  high  sub -soil,  nearly  always 
needs  to  be  plowed  deep;  the  effort  must  be  to  deepen 
the  soil.  Lands  which  are  sandy  or  leachy  may  need 
to  be  plowed  shallow  and  approximately  the  same 
depth  every  year;  the  effort  is  to  compact  the  under 
soil  and  thereby  to  prevent  the  leaching.  The  root- 
crops  demand  deep  soil  in  order  that  the  roots  may 
grow  long  and  symmetrical.  This  is  emphatically  true 
with  such  long -growing  roots  as  parsnips,  late  beets, 
carrots  and  horse-radish.  Forty  or  fifty  years  ago  it 
was  the  general  advice  that  land  be  plowed  deep.  But 
neither  deep  plowing  nor  shallow  plowing  is  the  unit. 
The  depth  of  plowing  is  a  question  of  conditions 

It  is  a  favorite  practice  with  the  gardener  to  plow 
land  in  the  fall.  There  are  three  objects  of  fall  plow- 
ing :  (1)  To  make  the  land  earlier  in  the  spring ;  (2) 
to  be  forehanded  with  the  work ;  (3)  to  improve  the 


Fall  Plowing  89 

physical  character  of  the  soil.  Land  which  is  plowed 
in  the  fall  can  nearly  always  be  worked  several  days 
earlier  than  that  which  is  plowed  in  the  spring.  It 
dries  out  sooner.  Especially  is  this  true  of  stiff  or 
loamy  lands.  Clay  lands  may  be  very  much  improved 
in  their  physical  texture  by  being  plowed  in  the  fall, 
so  that  the  weather  has  a  chance  to  break  down  and 
slack  the  lumps.  It  is  important,  however,  that  such 
land  should  contain  more  or  less  vegetable  matter; 
otherwise  it  may  run  together  and  puddle  during  the 
winter  season  and  be  difficult  to  manage  in  the  spring. 
If  the  land  contains  stubble  of  grain  or  grass,  or  if  it 
has  a  covering  of  manure,  such  danger  will  be  averted. 
If  the  land  is  clean  and  in  good  condition,  it  will  not 
need  to  be  plowed  again  in  the  spring,  but  can  be 
worked  down  with  heavy  tools,  like  the  spading  har- 
rows, and  be  got  in  ideal  condition  (Fig.  24).  When- 
ever land  is  needed  very  early  in  the  spring,  it  is 
advisable  to  plow  it  in  the  fall.  This  remark  applies 
with  little  force  to  light  and  sandy  lands,  for  they  can 
ordinarily  be  plowed  very  early. 

Lands  may  be  made  earlier  to  work  if  they  are 
thrown  into  beds  or  ridges  by  the  fall  plowing,  so  that 
the  dead -furrows  occur  every  eight  or  ten  feet.  The 
surface  water  is  then  carried  off  and  the  ridges  lie  so 
high  that  they  dry  out  quickly.  This  operation  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  trenching,  but  it  is  more  prop- 
erly ridging  of  the  land.  The  term  "trenching"  should 
be  reserved  for  its  legitimate  use  to  designate  the 
spading  up  or  loosening  up  of  the  land  deeper  than 
the  original  furrow.  It  is  only  a  special  practice. 


as 

11 

9  'S 


il 


Sub -soiling  91 

Sub -soiling  is  a  common  practice  in  market-garden- 
ing lands.  It  is  nearly  always  advisable  in  lands  which 
are  hard  or  have  a  high  sub -soil,  and  also  for  the 
long  root-crops,  which  demand  a  deep  soil  in  which  to 
perfect  their  growth.  Sub -soiling  is  not  a  permanent 
corrective  of  the  land,  for  the  soil  very  soon  settles 
back  into  its  original  and  hard  condition,  and  the  op- 
eration must  be  repeated.  The  fundamental  corrective 
for  such  soils  is  underdraining  and  incorporation  of 
humus.  The  growing  of  clover,  which  sends  its  roots 
deep  into  the  soil,  is  also  a  great  aid.  But  even  with 
all  these  aids,  sub -soiling  may  be  very  useful  in  certain 
cases.  The  sub -soil  plow  does  not  turn  a  furrow;  it 
merely  breaks  the  bottom  of  the  original  furrow.  It  is 
drawn  by  a  separate  team  and  follows  in  the  furrow 
immediately  behind  the  first  plowman. 

2.  The  tillage  of  maintenance  should  occur  at  least 
as  frequently  as  once  in  ten  days  for  the  best  market - 
garden  conditions.  Surf  ace- tillage  enables  the  land  to 
drink  in  the  water  of  rainfall.  It  also  saves  the  water 
in  the  soil  by  hindering  evaporation:  it  maintains  a 
loose  and  dry  layer  which  acts  as  a  mulch  to  the 

moister  soil  beneath.    A  board  or  a  forkful  of  manure 

i 

placed  on  the  earth  keeps  the  soil  moist  because  it 
delays  evaporation.  A  surf  ace -mulch  of  dry  earth 
acts  in  much  the  same  way.  The  depth  of  this  mulch 
must  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  kind 
of  crop,  frequency  of  tillage,  and  character  of  tools; 
but,  as  a  rule,  from  three  to  four  inches  of  loosely 
stirred  earth  is  sufficient.  It  also  solves  the  whole 
difficulty  of  weeds.  All  tillage  of  preparation — all 


92  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

fitting  of  the  land — should  be  completed  before  the 
crop  is  put  in:  thereafter,  only  the  surf  ace -mulch  is 
to  be  kept  in  repair.  But  many  times  the  prepara- 
tion-tillage is  not  completed  in  its  season,  and  the 
land  must  be  fitted  after  the  crop  is  sown  by  means 
of  deep  and  heavy  cultivating;  it  is  usually  a  loss  of 
effort  and  efficiency  when  preparation -tillage  and  main- 
tenance-tillage must  be  done  at  the  same  time. 

The  soil  in  the  surf  ace- mulch  is  relatively  dry,  and 
it  is  moved  so  often  that  roots  do  not  secure  a  foot- 
hold in  it.  It  is  therefore  out  of  use  for  the  time 
being  as  a  source  of  plant- food;  but  it  is  more  useful 
as  a  conservator  of  moisture  than  as  plant-food.  But 
its  food  comes  into  use  when  it  is  turned  under  the 
following  season,  and  it  is  also  carried  down  by  the 
rains,  particularly  by  those  of  spring  and  fall.  The 
gardener  must  bear  in  mind  that  his  plants  need  a  soil 
of  good  physical  texture,  one  which  holds  moisture, 
and  one  which  has  much  available  plant -food.  Deep 
preparation  enables  the  soil  to  hold  moisture,  and  the 
surface-mulch  saves  much  of  it  from  evaporating. 

The  rainfall  of  the  growing  season  is  often  insuffi- 
cient for  the  crop.  The  plants  draw  on  the  moisture 
which  has  been  stored  in  the  soil  by  the  winter  rains 
and  snows.  Therefore,  it  is  exceedingly  important  to 
save  this  winter  rainfall,  and  this  is  done  by  fitting 
the  soil  and  making  the  surf  ace -mulch  the  moment 
the  land  is  dry  enough  to  work  in  spring.  Even  if 
the  land  is  not  to  be  used  until  June,  it  should  be 
fitted  early,  and  lightly  harrowed  at  frequent  intervals 
before  the  crop  is  planted. 


Rotation  93 

Addition  of  humus. — Land  is  very  rapidly  improved 
by  the  incorporation  of  fiber.  This  fiber  is  secured  by 
plowing  under  any  kind  of  vegetation,  as  rye,  clover, 
manure  or  the  refuse  of  the  garden.  When  this  fiber 
decays  it  becomes  humus.  The  humus  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  by  making  it  loose,  open 
and  mellow;  by  enabling  it  to  hold  moisture;  by  pre- 
venting the  puddling  or  cementing  of  clay  soils;  by 
decreasing  the  heat  of  the  surface  soil  in  summer; 
and  by  improving  the  chemical  condition.  Humus 
itself  contains  plant -food.  It  also  affords  solvent 
acids  which  tend  to  unlock  other  plant -foods.  If  it  is 
derived  from  leguminous  plants,  it  also  adds  nitrogen. 
The  chief  reason  for  the  almost  extravagant  use  of 
stable  manures  by  market -gardeners  is  the  addition  of 
humus.  Lands  which  are  thus  manured  year  after  year 
become  quick  and  amenable  to  treatment.  Fertilizers 
work  quickly  in  them.  The  lands  can  be  tilled  at 
almost  any  time  in  the  growing  season,  and  when  one 
crop  is  off  another  can  be  put  in  quickly. 

One  great  value  of  the  rotation  of  crops  is  that  it 
adds  fiber  and  humus  to  the  soil.  It  is  probable  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  use  stable  manure  in  excess 
in  garden  lands;  that  is,  the  same  results  in  the  incor- 
poration of  humus  can  be  had  in  many  cases  more 
cheaply  by  the  growing  of  catch -crops.  Particularly 
is  this  true  of  those  areas  which  are  some  distance 
from  the  market  and  in  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
practice  rapid  succession  of  market  crops. 

Land  which  receives  identical  treatment  year  by 
year  tends  to  depreciate.  A  rotation  is  useful  because 


94  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

(1)  it  gives  different  treatments  to  the  land,  the  fault 
of  one  year  tending  to  be  corrected  by  the  manage- 
ment in  another  year;  (2)  no  one  element  of  plant -food 
is  exhausted,  the  rotation  tending  to  even  up  the 
demands  on  the  soil;  (3)  one  crop  leaves  the  land 
in  good  physical  condition  for  another ;  (4)  it  incor- 
porates humus;  (5)  it  destroys  pests  and  weeds;  (6) 
it  economizes  labor;  (7)  when  green  crops  are  turned 
under,  available  or  digested  plant -food  is  incorporated 
with  the  soil,  and  nitrogen  may  be  supplied.  The  rota- 
tion of  crops  means,  also,  rotation  in  tillage,  manuring 
and  other  treatment;  and  one  of  these  may  be  quite  as 
important  as  the  other. 

The  philosophy  of  the  "resting"  of  land  is  hereby 
explained.  It  is  not  due  to  any  need  of  recuperation 
in  the  soil ;  but  the  good  effects  which  follow  are  the 
compound  results  of  the  various  benefits  which  are 
derived  from  tilling  and  rotation.  Gardeners  find  that 
when  soil  becomes  unproductive  for  a  particular  crop, 
a  change  to  some  other  crop  may  result  in  profit. 
Soils  which  have  been  long  kept  in  market- gardens  may 
be  benefited  by  seeding  down  for  two  or  three  years. 
Whenever  possible,  attempts  should  be  made  to  prac- 
tice some  kind  of  a  rotation  in  the  market- garden  area. 
Now  and  then,  a  part  of  the  land  may  be  laid  down  to 
clover  for  a  year  or  two. 

2.     THE    FERTILIZING    OF    THE    LAND 

When  the  soil  has  been  thoroughly  fitted  and  im- 
proved by  all  the  foregoing  means,  a  gardener  may 


Composts  95 

think  of  adding  plant -food.  This  plant-food  may  be 
supplied  in  some  concentrated  fertilizer;  it  is  also  added 
when  green -crops  are  plowed  under  or  when  manure 
or  compost  of  garden  refuse  is  applied.  It  will  now 
be  seen  that  the  best  results  are  usually  to  be  expected 
when  there  is  something  like  a  rotation  in  the  ferti- 
lizing of  the  land,  stable  manures  being  used  alter- 
nately with  concentrated  or  commercial  fertilizers. 


Fig.  25.     Gardener's  compost  piles.— Manure  on  the  left,  sods  on  the  right. 

Composts. —  In  the  addition  of  plant-fiber  to  the 
soil,  much  will  be  gained  if  it  is  thoroughly  decom- 
posed. It  thereby  becomes  quickly  incorporated  with 
the  soil,  and  its  plant -food  soon  becomes  available. 
This  is  the  explanation  of  the  general  desire  of  market- 
gardeners  to  have  what  they  call  "short"  or  well-rotted 
manure,  and  also  the  very  common  practice  of  com- 
posting manures  and  refuse.  Composting  consists  in 
piling  the  various  materials  together  in  long,  low,  flat- 
topped  piles,  which  may  catch  and  retain  the  rainfall, 


96  The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

and  then  forking  them  over  two  or  more  times  during 
the  season  (Fig.  25).  If  the  materials  are  thoroughly 
disintegrated  and  mixed,  they  are  in  fit  condition  to  be 
put  on  the  land  and  they  readily  become  an  integral 
part  of  the  soil.  Materials  like  tomato  vines,  potato 
vines  and  even  corn  stalks,  which  are  too  raw  and  coarse 
to  apply  directly  to  the  land,  may  be  made  into  useful 
and  valuable  material  when  they  have  been  composted 
for  several  months  or  a  year;  although  if  serious  dis- 
eases infest  the  refuse,  the  material  would  better  be 
burned.  The  addition  of  quick -lime  hastens  the  de- 
composition of  raw. materials.  The  florist,  who  must 
have  his  soils  in  ideal  condition,  is  familiar  with 
methods  of  composting,  for  he  usually  provides  his 
soils  a  year  in  advance. 

Commercial  fertilizers. —  The  kind  and  amount  of 
fertilizers  to  be  used  are  to  be  determined  by  several 
circumstances  :  (1)  the  earliness  or  quickness  with 
which  the  crop  is  to  be  obtained  ;  (2)  the  intensity 
of  the  operations  to  which  the  man  is  committed  ;  (3) 
the  character  of  the  land  as  regards  tilth  and  texture; 
(4)  the  character  of  the  land  as  regards  richness  in 
plant -food  ;  (5)  the  kind  or  species  of  crops  to  be 
raised. 

There  is.  no  infallible  means  by  which  one  can 
determine  what  fertilizers  he  shall  apply.  He  must 
study  his  conditions  and  judge  as  best  he  can.  A 
little  experiment  with  different  kinds  of  fertilizer 
on  two  or  three  of  the  leading  crops  at  one  side  of 
the  plantation,  is  the  readiest  means  of  answering  the 
question. 


How   much   Fertilizer   is   Needed  97 

The  chemical  analysis  of  the  plant,  while  of  the  great- 
est use  to  the  chemist  in  giving  him  suggestions,  is  of 
no  practical  use  to  the  farmer  in  determining  the  kind 
of  fertilizers  or  what  amount  shall  be  applied.  The 
chemical  contents  of  plants  vary  in  the  different 
seasons  and  in  the  different  parts  of  the  plant,  and 
also  with  the  soil  in  which  the  plant  grows:  the  plant 
may  take  up  more  than  it  needs  when  some  element  is 
abundant.  Even  the  widest  variation  in  the  amount  of 
any  one  ingredient  will  be  amply  covered  by  the  large 
amount  of  fertilizer  which  is  ordinarily  applied.  Con- 
sider, for  example,  that  the  fruit  of  a  tomato  comprises 
.05  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  .27  per  cent  of 
potash.  If  the  crop  is  ten  tons  of  fruit  per  acre,  it  is 
probable  that  more  than  the  average  amount  of  phos- 
phoric acid  required  is  ten  pounds  and  of  potash  fifty- 
four  pounds.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  land 
itself  should  supply  at  least  three -fourths  of  these 
amounts.  We  will  assume  that  one -fourth  is  to  be 
supplied  by  the  addition  of  fertilizer.  We  should  then 
apply  to  the  acre  two  and  one -half  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  about  fourteen  pounds  of  potash.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  smallest  amounts  which 
are  ever  applied  are  many  times  in  excess  of  these 
amounts.  Fertilizers  must  always  be  applied  in  excess. 
It  is  impossible  to  distribute  a  very  small  quantity  ; 
roots  do  not  occupy  every  part  of  the  ground:  Much 
is  risked  in  the  chance  that  some  may  be  used. 

Following  are  figures  which  show  that  the  best  advice  as  to 
the  use  of  fertilizers  does  not  closely  follow  the  chemical  con- 
tent of  the  crop.  The  table  gives  the  average  amount  of 


98  The   Principles   of   Vegetable- Gardening 

nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  removed  from  an  acre; 
then  the  amount  of  these  materials  recommended  by  Voorhees 
(in  his  book  on  " Fertilizers ")>  and  others  and  the  differences 
between  the  two  : 


Yield 
per  acre 

Per  cent  of 
N.  P.  K. 

Am't  in  total 
crop—  Ibs. 

Am't 
taken 

Ain't 
given 

Difference 

LBS. 

LBS. 

N. 

P.  K. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

Cabbage.. 

30,000 

.38 

.11 

.43 

114 

33 

129 

276 

333 

57 

excess 

Carrots  .  . 

30,000 

.16 

.09 

.51 

48 

27 

153 

228 

190 

38 

defic'y 

Onions  .  .  . 

22,800 

.14 

.04 

.10 

31.9 

9.1 

22.8 

63.8 

247 

183  2  excess 

Parsnips.. 

30,000 

.22 

.19 

.62 

66 

57 

186 

309 

190 

119 

defic'y 

S.  Potat's. 

13,500 

.23 

.10 

.50 

31 

13.5 

67.5 

112 

312 

200 

excess 

Tomatoes. 

20,000 

.16 

.05 

.27 

32 

10 

54 

96 

120 

24 

excess 

Supposing  that  the  crop  obtains  none  of  its  nitrogen,  potash 
and  phosphorus  from  the  soil,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fertilizer 
recommended  for  cabbage  is  57  Ibs.  in  excess  of  the  needs  of 
a  normal  crop,  and  for  fancy  sweet  potatoes  200  Ibs.  in  excess. 
Yet  it  is  probable  that  the  recommendations  are  perfectly  safe 
and  economical,  for  the  grower  wants  an  extra  rather  than  a 
good  yield,  he  wants  the  crop  early  and  quick-growing,  and  he 
wants  to  take  no  risk  of  failure.  In  parsnips  and  carrots,  the 
recommended  amounts  are  less  than  those  required  by  the  crop ; 
but  in  these  cases  earliness  is  not  a  prime  requisite,  and  the 
plant  is  supposed  to  draw  slowly  a  large  part  of  its  supply  from 
the  stored  food  in  the  soil. 

Another  difficulty  in  the  giving  of  advice  for  ferti- 
lizing the  land  is  the  variable  character  of  the  soil. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  northern  states,  in 
which  the  soil  is  largely  drift  and  is  therefore  very 
uneven  in  kind  and  depth.  In  the  long  stretches  of 
sand  on*  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  or  in  the  red  clays 
of  the  South,  and  in  nearly  all  alluvial  soils,  the  prob- 
lem of  choosing  a  fertilizer  is  less  complex.  The  sandier 
and  more  uniform  the  land,  the  more  marked,  as  a 
rule,  will  be  the  effect  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The 


When   to   Fertilize  99 

harder  the  clay,  the  less  marked,  in  general,  is  the 
effect,  although  amendments  (as  lime)  may  have  great 
effect  in  making  such  soils  granular. 

Again,  the  state  of  tillage  has  much  to  do  with  the 
efficiency  of  a  fertilizer.  The  element  which  the  plant 
needs  may  be  afforded  more  cheaply  by  giving  better 
tillage  than  by  adding  fertilizers  ;  for  tillage  sets  at 
work  the  forces  which  unlock  plant-food.  On  the  other  . 
hand,  fertilizer  is  more  usable  by  the  plant  on  well- 
tilled  soils  :  the  plant  can  get  hold  of  it  because  the 
material  is  more  evenly  distributed ;  there  is  more 
moisture  to  dissolve  it ;  the  plant  is  more  comfortable 
and  vigorous  and  thereby  better  able  to  appropriate 
it.  The  good  gardener  is  the  one  who  gets  the  most 
out  of  his  land  by  means  of  good  tillage  and  then 
adds  fertilizer  to  get  more  out  of  it.  He  uses  fertilizer 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  an  extra  yield,  not  to  pre- 
vent the  soil  from  becoming  exhausted.  As  a  rule,  the 
men  who  till  best  buy  most  plant-food.  Fertilizer  is 
usually  a  losing  investment  for  a  poor  farmer. 

When  to  apply  a  fertilizer  depends  on  (1)  when  it 
is  needed  by  the  plant,  (2)  the  kind  of  fertilizer,  (3)  the 
soil,  (4)  the  kind  of  plant,  (5)  the  season  of  normal 
rainfall  of  the  district.  The  more  soluble  the  fertilizer, 
the  looser  the  soil,  the  shallower  the  roots,  the  later 
the  fertilizer  may  be  applied.  With  trees,  it  matters 
little  whether  fertilizer  is  applied  in  fall  or  spring,  for 
it  will  be  one  or  two  years,  as  a  rule,  before  it  affects 
the  plant.  With  the  general  run  of  vegetable  crops 
and  on  soils  in  good  tilth,  it  is  usually  best  to  apply 
fertilizer  in  the  spring,  sowing  it  on  the  surface  and 


100         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

harrowing  it  in.  On  ordinary  soils,  very  little  of  it  will 
be  lost  by  leaching.  Nitrates  are  most  likely  to  leach. 
They  are  soluble  and  pass  down  quickly.  Therefore, 
nitrate  of  soda  and  sulfate  of  ammonia  should  not 
be  applied  much  in  advance  of  the  planting.  With 
annual  crops,  fertilizer  should  not  be  applied  much,  if 
any,  in  advance  of  the  planting  :  the  fertilizer  is  needed 
near  the  surface,  and  it  should  be  quickly  available. 

There  is  much  discussion  whether  fertilizer  should 
be  applied  broadcast  or  in  the  hill,  which  proves  that 
both  methods  are  right.  If  one  wants  to  enrich  his 
land,  or  to  afford  sustenance  to  the  plant  throughout  its 
growing  season,  apply  broadcast.  If  one  wants  to  use 
fertilizer  to  start  the  plant  off  and  to  maintain  it  until 
it  gets  a  firm  hold  on  the  soil,  apply  in  the  hill.  A 
most  important  use  of  commercial  fertilizer  in  vege- 
table-gardening is  to  hasten  the  plant  in  the  begin- 
ning. It  is  kindling-wood  to  start  the  blaze. 

The  only  way  to  determine  what  fertilizers  to  use 
is  to  try.  On  a  small  plot  each  year  the  gardener 
should  experiment  with  fertilizers  as  he  does  with 
varieties.  The  fertilizer  question  is  largely  a  local 
and  special  problem. 

The  following  directions  given  by  the  College  of  Agriculture 
of  Cornell  University,  for  the  making  of  cooperative  fertilizer 
experiments,  will  suggest  to  the  farmer  how  he  may  experiment  : 

The  field  should  be  plowed  before  the  plats  are  laid  out. 
Then  use  good,  substantial  stakes  at  the  corners  of  the  plats, 
and  mark  them  in  such  a  way  that  the  plats  will  not  become 
mixed,  thereby  avoiding  confusion.  It  would  be  well  to  leave  a 
space  of  four  feet  between  each  two  plats  in  order  to  be  sure 
that  the  plants  on  one  plat  cannot  feed  on  tke  other  plats. 


A   Home   Experiment  101 

Do  not  lay  out  the  plats  on  land  that  has  been  manured 
within  one  year.  If  you  carried  on  fertilizer  experiments  last 
year,  do  not  use  the  same  set  of  plats  again  this  season. 

The  following  diagram  [slightly  modified  from  the  original] 
shows  the  arrangement  of  the  plats,  with  the  spaces  between. 
Each  plat  is  one  rod  wide  and  eight  rods  long: 


Plat  1— K.    15  Ibs.  Muriate  Potash. 


Plat 

2-N. 

20 

Ibs. 

Dried 

Blood 

• 

Plat  3— P.    30  Ibs.  Acid  Phosphate. 


Plat  4— Blank.    No  Fertilizer. 


T>I  *  s    xrir     TIT-     A  / 15  Ibs.  Muriate  Potash. 
Plat  5-NK.    Mixed  |  2Q  lbg_  Dried  filoo<L 


Plat  6—  PK. 

Mixed  < 

fir, 
80 

Ibs 

ibs. 

Muriate  Potash. 
Acid  Phosphate. 

Plat   7      Iff P       Mi^rl  /  20  lbs-  Dried   Blood. 

Plat  7-NP.    Mixed  {  3Q  lb§  Add  Phosphate> 


(20  lbs.  Dried  Blood. 

Plat  8-NPK.    MixedX  15  lbs.  Muriate  Potash. 
(30  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate. 


Plat  9— S.    Stable  Manure. 


102         The   Principles   of   Vegetable- Gardening 

Apply  the  fertilizers  broadcast  on  the  whole  of  each  plat, 
being  careful  not  to  sow  any  fertilizer  on  the  check  or  blank  plat 
No.  4,  and  harrow  into  the  soil  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  Har- 
row the  plats  lengthwise,  because  particular  care  must  be  taken 
that  none  of  the  fertilizer  for  one  plat  is  sown  on  or  is  dragged 
on  another  plat.  In  many  cases  muriate  of  potash  injures  the 
plant  if  applied  just  previous  to  putting  in  a  crop  ;  so  that  the 
earlier  this  fertilizer  is  applied  in  the  spring  the  less  will  be 
the  danger  of  injury. 

The  blank  or  check  plat  No.  4,  with  no  fertilizer,  must 
not  be  omitted.  This  is  the  most  important  of  any  single  plat, 
because  all  of  the  others  must  be  compared  with  the  blank  in 
order  to  learn  how  much  benefit  the  fertilizers  have  been  to  the 
crop. 

You  may  grow  any  crop  you  wish  on  these  plats.  The  same 
kind  and  same  amount  of  seed  is  to  be  sown  on  each  of  the  series 
of  nine  plats  in  the  set.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these 
experiments  are  to  be  tried  upon  the  crop  planted  and  not  upon 
an  accidental  crop  of  weeds.  In  no  case  will  the  experiments  be 
of  value  if  the  weeds  are  allowed  to  grow  on  the  plats.  Thorough 
tillage  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  field  test. 

Following  are  some  of  the  things  to  be  noted  in  the  study  of 
the  plats: 

I.  Location  of  field. 

a.    Upland. 

&.    Lowland.     (If  lowland,  does  the  soil  from  the  side  - 

hills  wash  down  upon  it  ?) 
c.   Hillside,  etc. 

II.  Character  of  soil. 

a.  Sandy. 

&.  Gravelly. 

c.  Clayey. 

d.  Loamy,  etc. 

e.  How  deep  is  surface  soil  ? 

/.    Is  there  a  hard-pan  ;  if  so,  how  deep  is  it  ? 
g.    Does  soil  hold  moisture,  or  dry  out  rapidly  ? 


Fertilizer  Problems  103 

III.  Fertility  of  soil. 

a.    Does  the  soil  possess  the  required  amount  of  plant  - 

food,  or  does  it  "run  down"  quickly  and  need 

enriching  ? 
&.    Have  manures  or  fertilizers    been  applied   in  past 

years  ?      If  so,  how  often,  what  kinds,  and  how 

much  per  acre  ? 

IV.  History  of  crops  previous  to  test. 

What  crops  have  been  grown,  and  with  how  much 
yield  per  acre,  in  past  years  ?  In  case  of  cereals, 
consider  the  number  of  bushels  of  grain  and 
tons  of  straw  or  stalks  per  acre. 

Whilst  the  gardener  must  regulate  his  fertilizer  prac- 
tice by  his  own  experiments  and  experience,  he  is  not 
wholly  dependent  on  his  own  resources.  Scientific  in- 
vestigation and  general  agricultural  experience  indicate 
what  will  probably  take  place  in  a  given  case.  The 
general  advice,  for  example,  is  to  apply  a  complete 
fertilizer, — that  is,  one  containing  nitrogen,  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  about  the  proportions  which  experi- 
ence has  found  to  be  useful.  This  advice  is  particu- 
larly good  when  the  person  does  not  wish  to  experiment 
or  to  give  the  subject  careful  study.  It  is  less  useful, 
perhaps,  when  one  does  not  wish  to  enrich  the  land  as 
much  as  to  give  a  stimulus  to  the  young  plant.  It  is 
generally  considered  that  nitrogen  promotes  rapid  vege- 
tative growth.  It  therefore  may  be  used  most  freely 
on  plants  which  are  desired  for  their  foliage  parts.  If 
it  promotes  growth,  it  also  delays  maturity.  Therefore 
it  should  be  used  sparingly,  or  only  early  in  the  season, 
on  fruit-bearing  plants  which  tend  to  mature  too  late, 
as  tomatoes  and  eggplants.  Experiments  at  Cornell 


104         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

showed  that  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  is  better  than  much 
for  tomatoes  ;  also,  that  a  given  quantity  applied  all  at 
once  early  in  the  season  is  better  than  the  same  quan- 
tity applied  at  intervals,  for  in  the  latter  case  it  pro- 
moted growth  too  late  and  the  fruits  did  not  ripen. 
For  the  person  who  has  studied  the  subject  and  his 
soil,  it  is  preferable  to  buy  the  elements  in  the  form 
of  high-grade  chemicals  and  to  apply  each  by  itself. 
He  can  then  apply  little  or  much  of  any  element  to 
this  place  or  to  that,  as  he  thinks  best.  Good  com- 
mercial sources  of  nitrogen  are  nitrate  of  soda  and 
sulfate  of  ammonia ;  of  potash,  muriate  of  potash  and 
unleached  wood  ashes  ;  of  phosphoric  acid,  bone  com- 
pounds and  fossil  phosphates  (as  South  Carolina  and 
Florida  rocks) .  Of  nitrate  of  soda,  150  to  300  pounds 
to  the  acre  is  a  good  application  ;  of  muriate  of  potash, 
from  200  to  400  pounds  ;  of  treated  South  Carolina 
rock,  from  200  to  400  pounds. 

Voorhees  ("Fertilizers,"  p.  267)  recommends  the 
following  "basic  formula"  for  market-garden  crops: 

Nitrogen 4  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid 8    "       " 

Potash 10    "       " 

"For  market -garden  crops,  a  fertilizer  of  the  above 
composition  may  be  regarded  as  a  basic  mixture,  which 
may  be  applied  to  all  of  the  crops,  leaving  the  specific 
needs  of  the  different  plants  to  be  met  by  top -dress- 
ings, or  applications  of  the  other  constituents.  The 
fertilizer  ingredients,  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid, 
should  preferably  consist  of  the  different  forms,  rather 


Fertilizer  Problems  105 

than  to  be  all  of  one  form,  though  the  cost  of  the  ele- 
ment will  naturally  regulate  this  point  to  some  extent. 
That  is,  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  should  be  nitrate  or 
ammonia,  and  a  part  organic ;  a  part  of  the  phos- 
phoric acid  should  be  soluble  (from  superphosphates), 
and  a  part  insoluble  (from  ground  bone,  tankage  or 
natural  phosphates).  The  soluble  portions  of  both 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  contribute  to  the  im- 
mediate needs  of  the  plant,  and  the  less  soluble  to 
its  continuous  and  steady  growth,  and  to  the  poten- 
tial fertility  of  the  soil." 

For  asparagus,  Voorhees  recommends  from  1,000 
to  1,500  pounds  per  acre  of  fertilizer  prepared  on  the 
above  basic  formula ;  for  peas  and  beans,  500  to  600 
pounds,  to  be  supplemented,  if  needed,  with  20  to  30 
pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  60  to  75  pounds  potash ; 
for  beets  and  turnips,  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  at  time 
of  seeding,  followed  by  50  to  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
soda  "once  every  week  or  ten  days,  for  at  least  three 
or  four  weeks  after  the  plants  have  well  started." 
These  details  will  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  problem. 
The  subject  is  taken  up  for  the  different  crops  in 
Part  II. 

Voorhees  recommends  that  the  market  -  gardener 
"apply  a  reasonable  excess  of  all  the  essential  ferti- 
lizer constituents  to  all  of  the  crops."  "Given  good 
natural  conditions  in  respect  to  soil,  and  a  favorable 
season,  the  one  thing  that  more  than  any  other  con- 
trols the  yield  and  quality  of  market -garden  products 
is  plant -food  of  the  right  amount  and  kind."  "In 
these  days,  it  is  not  only  the  yield  of  a  definite  area  that 


106         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

must  be  considered,  but  the  edible  quality  of  the  prod- 
ucts that  are  put  upon  the  market.  Quality  depends 
upon,  or  is  measured  by,  both  appearance  and  palata- 
bility  ;  and  palatability  is  determined  by  the  succulence 
and  sweetness  of  the  vegetable,  or  its  freedom  from 
bitterness,  stringiness,  and  other  undesirable  character- 
istics which  frequently  exist,  and  which  can  be  largely 
eliminated,  provided  the  grower  is  thoroughly  familiar 
with  his  business,  assuming,  of  course,  that  varieties 
are  the  same  in  each  case.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  market -garden  crops  of  the  best  quality  are  those 
which  are  grown  under  conditions  which  permit  of  a 
continuous  and  rapid  development.  Any  delay  in  the 
growth  of  a  radish  or  of  lettuce  is  largely  responsible 
for  the  sharp  taste  and  pungent  flavor  of  the  former, 
and  the  bitterness  and  toughened  fiber  of  the  latter. 
The  same  principles  hold  true  of  early  table  beets  and 
turnips.  The  beets  become  stringy  and  wiry  in  char- 
acter, and  are  less  palatable  if  during  the  period  of 
normal  growth  there  has  been  any  delay.  In  a  time 
during  which  there  has  been  no  progress  the  fibrous 
portion  of  the  vegetable  is  toughened,  and  exists  in 
too  great  proportion.  In  the  case  of  the  early  turnip, 
if  any  delay  in  growth  occurs,  the  quality  is  injured, 
and  the  peculiar,  pleasant  flavor,  a  characteristic  of  the 
perfect  vegetable,  is  changed ;  it  becomes  unpleasant. 
The  unfavorable  conditions  of  growth  seem  to  cause 
more  or  less  reversion  to  the  character  of  the  original 
plant  from  which  the  improved  type  has  been  derived, 
mainly  through  selection  and  improved  methods  of 
cultivation. " 


CHAPTER   IV 

VEGETABLE- GARDENING   TOOLS 

RELATIVE  to  the  price  of  land,  labor  is  expensive 
in  America.  It  must  be  economized.  Tools  and  imple- 
ments are  a  necessity. 

There  is  a  tool  for  every  labor.  Many  of  these  tools 
are  the  products  of  necessity.  Others  satisfy  the  invent- 
ive fancy  of  the  American.  Foreign  writers  wonder 
at  the  variety  of  tools  pictured  in  our  rural  books,  but 
the  number  of  tools  which  are  in  actual  use  far  exceeds 
those  which  are  described  in  books.  To  an  important 
degree  it  is  true  that  the  successful  American  farmer 
is  known  by  the  number  and  variety  of  his  tools.  The 
man  who  has  many  useful  implements  emphasizes 
brain  above  brawn.  He  is  tactful  and  resourceful. 
He  means  to  be  master  of  the  situation.  He  is  to 
accomplish  the  given  result  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  mere  physical  energy.  He  will  do  his  work  better 
and  more  expeditiously  than  the  man  who  depends  on 
his  hands  and  his  muscles.  Good  tools  educate  the 
man.  Their  use  cultivates  ingenuity.  They  teach  him 
to  think. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  is  rich  in  agri- 
cultural implements  has  Jess  intimate  contact  with  his 
plants  than  the  hand -worker  has.  The  machine  is 

(107) 


108         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

between  him  and  the  plant.  He  depreciates  the  value 
of  painstaking  human  care  in  the  growing  and  the 
training  of  the  plant. 


Fig.  26.    Various  types  of  plows. 

f  is  a  gang-plow,  turning  three  furrows  at  once;    h  is  a  winged  shovel  or 
furrowing  or  hilling  plow;    i  is  a  subsoil  plow. 

In  American  conditions,  however,  a  large  equipment 
of  tools  is  necessary  to  an  abundant  and  cheap  crop. 
The  nicest  judgment  is  required  to  make  a  proper 


Fig.  27. 

Various  kinds  of  harrow 
tools. 

No.  1,  disk  harrow;  2,  spike- 
tooth  harrow  ;  3,  Acme 
harrow  ;  4,  spring  -  tooth 
harrow,  with  side  frames ; 
5,  sulky  cultivator ;  6, 
spring-tooth  harrow  ;  7, 
Morgan  spading-harrow. 


110         The   Principles   of   Vegetable-? Gardening 

~m 

b 


Fig.  28.    Boilers. 

a,  National;  6,  c,  sectional  iron  or  steel  rollers;  d,  Cyclone  pulverizer;  e,  Wil- 
der lawn  roller;  f,  Wilder  crusher  and  clod  pulverizer;  g,  Henderson's 
lawn  roller;  h,  Straddle-crop  roller;  i,  1-horse  roller. 

selection  of  tools;  for  the  kinds  should  be  determined 
by  (1)  the  character  of  the  soil,  (2)  the  size  of  the  plan- 
tation, (3)  the  comparative  earliness  of  the  required 
product,  (4)  the  kinds  of  plants  to  be  grown,  (5)  the  per- 
sonal ideals  of  the  farmer.  Tools  which  are  adapted  to 
the  working  of  clay  soils  may  not  be  adapted  to  sand. 


Classification   of  Tools  111 

There  should  be  a  tool  for  each  diverse  type  of  labor. 
An  advantage  of  the  variety  in  tools  offered  by  Ameri- 
can dealers  is  the  fact  that  a  tool  may  be  selected  for 
each  particular  purpose.  Some  farms  are  overstocked 
with  tools.  Too  much  capital  is  locked  up  in  them. 
This  fault  is  usually  the  result  of  duplication, — the 
various  tools  are  too  similar,  they  do  not  per- 
form  different  kinds  or  types  of  labor. 

It  requires  nearly  as  many  tools  to  equip 
one    acre    of   market -garden   as    to   equip   five 


Fig.  29.    Wheel-hoes  for  garden  work. 

acres.     Consequently,  it  is  relatively  cheaper  to  till  a 
fairly  large  area,  so  long  as  it  can  be  tilled  well. 

Market -gardening   tools   may   be   roughly  classified 
as  follows  : 

I.    Tools  for  tillage. 

Tools  to  prepare  the  land  for  planting : 
Plows  (Fig.  26), 
Harrows  (Fig.  27), 
Cultivators, 
Rollers  (Fig.  28), 

Hand-tools  of  various  kinds,  as  spades,  shovels, 
wheel-hoes  (Figs.  29,  32). 


112        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Tools  for  subsequent  use,— to  maintain  the  con- 
dition of  the  land : 
Cultivators, 
Weeders  (Fig.  30), 

Hand-tools,  as  wheel-hoes,  hoes,  rakes,  scari- 
fiers, finger -weeders. 

II.  Tools  to  facilitate  hand -work. 

In  distributing  manure  and  fertilizer, 

In  marking  the  land, 

In  sowing  (Fig.  37,  Chap.  V), 

In  planting, 

In  spraying  (Chap.  VI), 

In  harvesting, 

In  preparing  the  product  for  market  or  sale. 

III.  Tools  for  transportation. 

Carts  and  barrows  (Fig.  31), 
Stone-boats  and  sledges, 
Wagons. 

For  any  market -garden  which  is  large  enough  to 
be  worked  by  horses,  the  following  general -purpose 
tools,  at  the  least,  will  be  needed  (see  also  the  inven- 
tories on  pp.  24-30) : 

1  2 -horse  plow, 

1  1- horse  plow, 

1  furrowing  or  single  shovel  plow, 

1  spading-  or  cutaway-harrow,  if  the  land  is  heavy, 

1  spring -tooth  harrow, 

1  roller  or  slicker, 

1  smoothing  harrow, 


Fig.  30.    Horse  weeders. 

a,  Breed;  6,  Wiard;  c,  Eclipse;  d,  Fanning,  tor  attachment  to  rear  of  cultivator; 
e,  Asp  in  wall;  f,  Hallock's  Success;  g,  Champion;  h,  Iron  Age  weeder  at- 
tachment. 


114        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

1  spike -tooth  cultivator, 

1  wide -tooth  or  shovel -blade  cultivator, 

1  marker, 

1  seed -sower, 

1  or  more  hand  wheel -hoes, 

1  or  more  wagons, 

1  stone -boat, 

1  wheelbarrow, 

1  spraying  outfit, 

Spade,  shovels,  hoes,  rakes,  forks,  hand-weeders, 
trowels  and  dibbers,  hose,  watering  cans,  car- 
penters' tools. 

Tools  of  secondary  importance,  but  which  the  well- 
equipped  market -garden  must  possess,  are  : 

Gang -plow,  if  the  area  is  large, 
Subsoil  plow, 
Swivel  plow, 

2  or  more  types  of  spading,  cutaway,  or  disk  har- 

rows, if  the  land  is  heavy, 
Acme  and  other  harrows, 
Wire -tooth  weeder, 

Various  patterns  of  cultivators  for  special  work, 
Plant -setter, 
Fertilizer  distributor, 
Trucks  and  wagons. 

Aside  from  these  various  tools,  there  are  special 
implements  for  special  crops,  as  celery -hillers,  aspara- 
gus-bunchers,  potato -diggers,  potato -sorters,  and  the 
like. 

In     selecting     a     tool,    the     buyer    should     know 


What    Tools   to   Buy 


115 


Fig.  31.    Various  barrows,  carts  and  trucks. 

All  of  which  are  useful  for  the  gardener.     /  is  a  good  type  of  hand  spray 
pump  for  small  areas. 

(a)  what  labor  is  to  be  performed,  (b/  what  implement 
will  best  perform  it.  Many  farmers  buy  a  tool  because 
it  is  perfect  as  a  mechanism  or  merely  because  it  is 
an  improvement  on  what  they  already  have.  This  is 
well  ;  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  after  all,  that 


116         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

the  tool  is  not  the  first  consideration, — it  is  not  the 
unit.  The  unit  is  the  work  to  be  done  or  the  con- 
dition to  be  attained.  A  farmer  may  not  ask,  there- 
fore, whether  he  shall  buy  a  spading-harrow  :  he 
should  consider  his  soil  and  what  he  wants  to  do  with 
it,  and  then  search  for  the  tool  which  will  do  the 
work  best. 

The  plow  is  the  primary  or  fundamental  farm 
implement.  It  is  the  general -purpose  machine.  Its 
office  is  to  prepare  the  land,  not  to  maintain  it  in 
condition.  As  a  class,  stiff  and  heavy  soils  require 
heavy  plows  and  deep  plowing.  Sandy  soils  may  be 
the  better  for  shallow  plowing,  for  it  is  often  desir- 
able to  compact  the  subsoil  rather  than  to  loosen  it. 
There  are  conditions  and  conditions. 

Plowing  has  two  general  offices  :  (a)  to  break  and 
pulverize  the  soil  to  fit  it  for  the  growth  of  the  crop; 
(6)  to  begin  the  preparation  of  a  seed-bed  in  which 
the  plant  may  get  a  start.  In  the  plowing  of  the 
sandy  soils  mentioned  above,  it  may  be  the  second  office 
which  is  sought :  only  a  good  seed-bed  is  desired,  for 
the  land  is  loose  enough  without  the  plowing.  In  the 
clay  field,  both  offices  are  sought.  Not  deep  plowing 
nor  shallow  plowing  is  a  principle  :  it  is  only  a  means 
of  accomplishing  a  desired  result.  The  unit  is  the  con- 
dition which  is  to  be  secured  in  the  particular  soil. 

The  seed-bed  is  finished  by  the  harrow.  The  soil 
is  maintained  in  tilth  by  the  harrow.  The  harrow, 
therefore,  is  an  implement  both  for  preparing  arid 
maintaining  the  soil  condition.  If  the  soil  is  light, 
loose  or  sandy,  tillage  presents  few  difficulties  and 


Managing    Clay   Soils  117 

relatively  little  expense.  If  it  is  clayey,  tillage  must 
be  nicely  managed  for  best  results.  Many  people 
expend  more  time  and  muscle  on  clay  lands  than  are 
required.  The  one  important  item  is  timeliness.  When 
the  soil  is  betwixt  wet  and  dry,  it  breaks  as  it  turns 
from  the  plow.  Turn  it  up  loose  and  open.  Then 
let  it  lie  for  a  few  hours  or  a  day.  As  the  clods 
begin  to  dry,  work  roughly  with  a  strong  harrow,  as  a 
spading-harrow,  spring-tooth,  or  Acme.  Do  not  try  to 
work  it  down  fine.  As  the  lumps  begin  to  dry  after 
the  next  rain,  hit  them  with  the  boot.  If  they  break 
and  crumble,  work  the  land  again,  this  time  with  a 
lighter  harrow.  A  few  timely  workings  when  the  soil 
is  just  right  will  accomplish  more  than  thrice  the 
labor  at  other  times.  Many  people  make  the  mistake 
of  tilling  their  clay  lands  until  they  become  too  fine. 
Then  a  rain  packs  and  cements  them,  and  the  trouble 
begins  all  over  again.  Because  sandy  and  loamy  soils 
are  best  when  fine  and  mealy,  people  think  clays  must 
be ;  but  clay  is  not  sand.  The  addition  of  humus 
enables  one  to  make  a  clay  soil  mealy. 

Gradually,  as  the  texture  improves,  lighter  tools  may 
be  used  to  maintain  the  surface  mulch, — for  the  tillage 
of  maintenance  really  has  no  other  primary  office  than 
to  keep  the  surface  loose.  When  finally  the  wire- tooth 
weeder  can  be  used,  the  gardener  may  know  that  his 
surface  soil  is  in  perfect  physical  condition.  To  most 
general  farmers  the  weeder  is  a  useless  tool,  but 
market -gardeners  prize  it, — which  illustrates  the  differ- 
ences in  tillage  between  the  common  farm  and  the 
market- garden. 


118         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

A  one-horse  harrow  is  usually  known  as  a  culti- 
vator. But  there  are  two  types  of  cultivators, — those 
which  only  stir  the  soil  and  repair  the  surface  mulch, 
as  the  spike  -  tooth  cultivators  ;  and  those  which  move 
the  soil  or  even  invert  it,  as  the  shovel -tooth  culti- 


Fig.  32.     The  onion-bed  condition  of  land.    Tilling  with  the  wheel-hoe. 

vators.     Are  not  shovel-tooth  cultivators  too  common 
and  spike-tooth  cultivators  too  rare? 

In  the  market -garden,  the  wheel -hoe  is  important. 
It  saves  immensely  of  hand  labor  and  usually  leaves 
the  soil  in  better  condition  than  hand  -  work  does. 
Have  a  number  of  patterns,  large  and  small.  Select 
a  large  wheel  with  a  broad  tire,  that  it  may  ride  over 


Hoes   and   Rollers  119 

lumps  and  travel  on  soft  ground.  Soil  must  be  in  good 
condition  to  be  worked  with  wheel-hoes ;  therefore, 
they  should  be  introduced  for  their  educational  effect. 
Aim  at  the  onion-bed  condition  of  tilth  (Fig.  32). 

A  hand -hoe  is  a  clumsy  and  inefficient  tillage  tool. 
Its  one  merit  in  this  regard  is  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
used  between  the  plants,  where  many  other  tools  can- 
not enter ;  but  it  leaves  no  efficient  surface  mulch  and 
does  not  often  improve  soil -texture.  The  common  hoe 
has  two  types  of  legitimate  uses  on  the  farm, — to  aid 
in  planting,  to  kill  weeds.  As  a  tillage -tool,  the  rake 
is  far  superior.  Most  persons  use  the  hoe  as  they 
would  a  pick, — to  chop  the  earth.  Much  hoeing  usually 
wastes  soil  moisture. 

Rollers  have  two  uses :  (a)  to  break  clods  and 
level  the  ground,  (&)  to  provide  moisture  for  seeds  or 
newly  set  plants.  They  provide  moisture  by  wasting 
it.  Rolling  the  land  establishes  capillary  connection 
with  the  under  soil,  and  brings  the  particles  into  con- 
tact with  the  seeds.  It  destroys  the  surface  mulch. 
The  water  rises  and  passes  off  into  the  air:  in  its 
passage,  it  moistens  the  seeds.  As  soon  as  the  seed- 
lings or  transplanted  plants  are  established,  therefore, 
restore  the  surface  mulch.  The  farmer  pats  his  hill 
of  corn  with  the  hoe,  thereby  accomplishing  the  result 
which  he  secures  on  the  wheat  field  with  his  roller. 
The  gardener  walks  over  his  row  of  seeds. 

If  the  roller  is  used  only  to  break  the  clods,  the 
land  should  be  tilled  again  to  restore  the  surface  mulch. 
The  roller  is  a  poor  tool  in  the  hands  of  a  thoughtless 
man.  For  the  leveling  of  land,  a  home-made  planker 


120         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

or  slicker  is  a  useful  tool.  A  similar  device  may  be 
attached  to  a  cultivator  frame  (Fig.  33,  Planet  Jr. 

Leveler) . 

Spraying  machinery  has 
come  to  be  a  necessity.  No 
one  kind  of  pump  or  nozzle  is 
beat.  A  nozzle  which  throws 
a  stream  the  farthest  is  the 
least  useful  when  it  is  desired 
to  apply  the  stream  near  at 
hand.  That  is,  that  machine 

is  best  which  does  the  given  work  best ;  and  there 
are  many  kinds  of  work  to  be  done.  The  vegetable- 
gardener  can  use  outfits  running  from  the  power  of 
the  vehicle  wheels  better  than  the  orchardist  can.  Do 
not  buy  a  sprinkler  or  a  machine  which  allows  the 
spray  to  fall  by  mere  gravity.  Have  a  pump.  The 
liquid  must  be  thrown  with  force.  Use  a  nozzle  with 
a  small  aperture,  so  that  the  material  will  be  finely 
broken.  A  nozzle  has  carrying  power  and  distribut- 
ing power.  As  a  rule,  the  farther  it  carries,  the  less 
finely  it  distributes  the  liquid.  If  possible,  have  the 
nozzle  near  its  work :  force  the  liquid  through  a  hose 
rather  than  through  the  air.  Have  the  nozzle  on  the 
end  of  the  hose  ;  and  have  the  end  of  the  hose  where 
the  bug  is. 

Secure  a  spraying  outfit  of  large  capacity.  It  is 
more  efficient  and  more  economical  of  labor.  Be  sure 
that  the  pump  is  strong,  well  made,  brass-lined,  and  has 
much  power.  Clean  it  thoroughly  inside  before  putting 
it  away  for  winter.  Get  it  out  a  month  before  it  is 


Combination    Tools  121 

wanted  in  spring ;  it  will  probably  need  tinkering. 
Year  by  year,  spraying  machinery  is  improving.  Send 
to  the  manufacturers  for  catalogues.  Read  the  papers 
and  the  bulletins. 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  avoid  combination  tools 
which,  by  means  of  various  attachments  are  designed 
to  perform  very  unlike  kinds  of  labor.  They  are  likely 
to  be  less  efficient  than  tools  made  directly  for  the 
given  labor,  and  are  also  more  liable  to  get  out  of  re- 
pair. They  are  usually  cheaper  than  separate  tools, 
however,  and  some  of  them  are  very  satisfactory. 


CHAPTER   V 
SEEDS  AND   SEED  AGE 

NEARLY  all  vegetable -gardening  crops  are  grown 
directly  from  seeds.  Therefore,  the  character  of  the 
seed  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  vegetable -grower. 
The  larger  part  of  seed-tests  and  germination  studies  in 
this  country  are  made  with  vegetable-gardening  seeds. 
In  fact,  when  seed -tests  are  mentioned,  the  vegetables 
or  cereals  are  commonly  the  only  plants  which  come 
to  mind.  It  is  important  that  careful  attention  be 
given  to  the  character  and  quality  of  seeds  for  the 
vegetable -garden.  The  loss  of  a  crop  and  of  the 
season's  labor  is  often  the  result  of  poor  seeds. 

Good  seeds  satisfy  four  general  tests  or  demands:  (1) 
they  must  be  viable,*  or  able  to  grow;  (2)  they  must  be 
pure,  or  with  no  other  kinds  of  seeds  intermixed;  (3) 
they  must  be  true  to  name;  (4)  they  must  have  the 
greatest  possible  longevity. 

1.    THE    LONGEVITY   OF    SEEDS 

The  length  of  time  a  seed  will  live  varies  with 
(1)  the  species  or  variety  ;  (2)  the  conditions  under 

*For  general  agricultural  discussions,  the  word  viability  is  usually  preferable 
to  vitality.  A  viable  seed  is  one  which  is  capable  of  growing  ;  a  vital  seed  is  one 
which  is  alive,  but  it  may  not  have  sufficient  vitality  to  be  able  to  complete  its 
germination. 

(122) 


Longevity    of  Seeds  123 

which  it  was  grown;  (3)  the  degree  of  ripeness;  (4) 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  stored  and  handled  ;  (5) 
the  condition  as  respects  mechanical  or  insect  injuries. 
There  is  a  limit  to  the  life  of  every  seed,  yet  when 
this  limit  is  reached  there  may  be  no  evidence  in 
the  seed  itself,  either  external  or  internal,  to  indicate 
the  loss  of  vitality.  The  seed  must  be  placed  under 
circumstances  most  favorable  to  its  germination,  and 
its  condition  tested  by  its  ability  or  inability  to  grow. 
In  practice,  the  seeds  of  a  given  plant  are  tested 
in  a  greater  or  less  quantity,  the  percentage  of  the 
quantity  which  germinates  being  adopted  as  the  meas- 
ure of  germinative  vitality.  This  results  in  a  test  of 
the  species,  variety,  or  the  sample  as  a  whole,  rather 
than  in  a  test  of  individual  seeds.  Hence  it  follows 
that  the  limit  of  viability  in  commercial  tests  does  not 
represent  the  extreme  age  at  which  it  is  safe  to  plant, 
there  being  a  constant  failure  of  individual  seeds  from 
the  first  instance  of  loss  of  life  until  no  one  seed  in 
the  sample  remains  alive.  It  therefore  becomes  appar- 
ent that,  as  a  rule,  the  fresher  the  seeds  the  better  the 
results,  independent  of  the  figures  representing  extreme 
duration  of  vitality.  Haberlandt  shows  that  there  is  an 
increasing  failure  in  seeds  kept  from  year  to  year.  In 
the  tests  100  seeds  were  used  in  each  case: 

1  yr.  old  2  yrs.        3  yrs.       4  yrs.      6  yrs. 

Wheat    ...    96  germinated.          84          60          73          4 

Barley    ...    89  "  92          33          48 

Oats    ....    96          "  80          32          72        48 

The  germinative  power  of  seeds  is  sometimes  tested 
by  placing  the  seeds  on  live  coals.     Those  which  snap 


124         The   Principles   of   Vegetable  -  Gardening 

sharply  are  supposed  to  have  been  good.  It  is  also 
tested  by  throwing  the  seeds  into  water,  those  which 
sink  being  regarded  as  viable.  These  practices  are  not 
to  be  recommended. 

1.  The  natural  and  normal  limit  of  germinative  vital- 
ity is  usually  a  specific  character,  peculiar  to  the  indi- 
vidual  species.     Therefore   no    general   law  concerning 
the  natural  or  normal  limit  of  vitality  can  be  enunci- 
ated.     Species   of   very   close   botanical   affinity   often 
differ  widely  in  this  regard.      In  some  instances,  how- 
ever, there  are  tolerably  well -denned  family  traits,  as, 
for  example,  in  the  CucurbitaceaB  (pumpkins,  squashes, 
melons,  cucumbers),  of  which  most  of  the  species  pos- 
sess a  rather  high   longevity,  and  likewise  in  the   Le- 
guminosse.      Seeds   of   the    Umbellifera3,  on   the   other 
hand  (as  parsnip,  carrot,  celery,  parsley),  have  a  rela- 
tively low  vitality,  and  this  trait  is  probably  associated 
with  the  oily  character  of   the  seeds  and  fruits.     This 
natural   longevity    is   not    correlated    with   the   normal 
size  of  the  seed.     The  minute  seeds  of  tobacco,  if  per- 
fect, grow  well  when  seven  or  eight  years  old,  but  the 
large  seeds  of  castor  bean  may  fail  in  two  years. 

2.  The   longevity  or  vitality   of  seeds  is  determined 
largely  by  the  conditions  under  which  they  grew.    As  a 
rule,  the  most  vigorous  development  of  plant  produces 
the  most  perfect  vitality  of  seed,  although  the  product 
of  such  seed  may  not  be  the  most  satisfactory  for  the 
cultivator.     Conversely,  a  poor  season  for  the  vegeta- 
tion of  any  plant,  or  other  untoward  circumstance,  by 
causing    a   weak    plant,    produces   seeds    of    impaired 
vitality.     Seedsmen  are  aware  of   this   fact,  and   they 


Fresh    Seeds  125 

are  often  able  to  forecast  the  value  of  the  seed -crop 
of  certain  plants  by  knowing  the  season  and  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  grown.  Seeds  from  poorly 
developed  plants,  if  fully  ripe,  are  seldom  distinguish- 
able by  the  eye  from  those  grown  under  the  best 
conditions.  They  often  give  a  very  high  test  soon 
after  they  have  been  harvested,  but  rapidly  decline 
in  value,  and  at  planting  season,  the  following 
spring,  may  be  worthless.  Consequently,  tests  made 
in  autumn  or  early  winter  may  be  of  little  value  to 
the  cultivator. 

What  are  known  to  the  trade  as  "round  seeds" — cab- 
bage, turnip,  radish,  and  the  like — are  very  likely  to  be 
influenced  in  keeping  qualities  by  the  conditions  which 
obtained  during  the  year  in  which  they  were  grown. 
Cabbage  may  germinate  70  to  80  per  cent  in  its  eighth 
year,  and  again  it  may  fall  below  40  per  cent  in  the 
third  year.  The  character  of  the  resulting  plants,  as 
well  as  mere  percentage  of  germination,  may  be  affected. 
Therefore,  to  know  the  year  in  which  the  seed  is  grown 
is  sometimes  more  important  than  merely  to  know  its 
age.  Gardeners  demand  fresh  seeds  :  this  is  well,  and 
yet  old  seeds  may  be  better.  The  best  seed  merchants 
lay  in  an  extra  stock  in  the  good  years,  and  the  dis- 
criminating buyer  chooses  this  stock  as  long  as  it 
retains  a  fair  percentage  of  germination. 

A  mechanical  or  other  injury  to  the  growing  plant 
may  produce  the  same  effect  on  the  seeds  as  an  un- 
propitious  season.  For  example,  a  certain  fine  crop  of 
seed-cabbages  was  attacked  late  in  the  season  by  great 
numbers  of  plant-lice.  The  seeds  produced  were  to 


126         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

appearances  of  good  quality,  and  the  first  test  gave  a 
high  percentage  of  germination.  A  test  made  a  month 
later  by  two  parties  indicated  a  decrease  of  nearly 
15  per  cent  in  germination  and  subsequent  tests  in- 
dicated a  constant  lessening  of  viability.  By  spring 
the  seeds  were  worthless. 

As  a  rule,  light-weight  seeds  give  lower  germinat- 
ing percentages  than  heavy  ones  of  the  same  variety, 
and  the  weight  is  often  determined  by  the  conditions 
of  growth  of  the  plant  and  its  seeds.  No  doubt  the 
position  of  the  seed  in  the  fruit  has  something  to  do 
with  its  germinative  vitality,  inasmuch  as  such  posi- 
tion must  sometimes  influence  its  weight  and  other 
physical  properties.  This  subject  receives  little  defi- 
nite attention,  however,  although  the  relation  of  the 
position  of  the  seed  with  reference  to  character  of  its 
offspring,  a  subject  with  which  we  are  not  now  con- 
cerned, suggests  experiment.  Seedsmen  know  that 
if  seeds  for  testing  are  taken  from  the  top  of  a  bag 
which  has  been  shipped  in  one  continuous  position, 
the  percentages  of  germination  will  not  often  be  as 
great  as  those  obtained  from  seeds  taken  from  the 
middle  or  bottom  of  the  bag  where  the  heavier  seeds 
have  settled. 

A  citation  may  be  made  (1st  Rep.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  83) 
to  indicate  the  extent  to  which  an  injury  to  the  plant  may 
influence  the  weight  of  seeds.  One  hundred  seeds  of  each  of 
three  lots  of  ordinary  White  Globe  onion  seeds  weighed  respec- 
tively 5.91,  5.98  and  4.99  grains,  or  an  average  of  5.63  grains. 
One  hundred  grains  of  the  same  variety  from  a  grafted  plant 
weighed  3.97  grains,  100  from  a  ligatured  plant  weighed  4.05 
grains,  and  100  from  a  compressed  stalk,  3.48  grains. 


Position   of  the    Seed  127 

The  position  of  the  fruit  on  the  plant  or  inflorescence  may 
exercise  some  influence  on  germination.  The  following-  state- 
ment records  percentages  of  germinations  from  kernels  of  corn 
and  other  cereals  taken  from  the  base,  the  middle  and  the  tip 
of  the  6ar  or  inflorescence,  100  kernels  being  tested  in  each 
case  (Sturtevant,  in  2d  Eep.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  63): 

Base  Middle  Tip 

Waushakum  Flint  Corn 80  72  95 

White  Eice  Pop  Corn 100  100  100 

Bed  Eice  Pop  Corn 98  94  100 

Minnesota  Dent  Corn 98  100  100 

Early  Dent  Corn 82  24  33 

Sibley's  Pride  of  the  North  Corn  ...  100  100  97 

Wheat 99  100 

Wheat  , 100  100  100 

Oats  .  . 94  88  100 

Oats 100  100  100 

Sorghum .    65  86  89 

While  the  results  of  this  trial  are  discordant,  the  explana- 
tions of  the  differences  are  easily  suggested.  It  is  probable 
that  in  those  cases  in  which  the  germinations  were  higher  from 
the  tips,  the  kernels  were  not  so  fully  matured  as  below, 
while  the  record  states  that  "in  the  case  of  the  dent  corns, 
some  were  under-ripe  and  the  germination  imperfect,"  the  tip 
kernels  apparently  not  being  ripe  enough  to  grow.  The  experi- 
ment, therefore,  appears  to  prove  nothing  concerning  the  germi- 
nating power  of  seeds  from  various  parts  of  the  inflorescence 
only  as  such  position  indicates  comparative  development  and 
maturity.  Another  test  made  by  the  same  experimenter  in  a 
field  plot,  upon  Waushakum  corn,  gave  the  following  results: 
"Of  the  80  butt  kernels,  56  kernels,  or  70  per  cent,  germinated; 
of  the  611  central  kernels,  589  kernels,  or  96  per  cent,  germi- 
nated; of  the  80  tip  kernels,  78  kernels,  or  97.5  per  cent,  germi- 
nated. We  may,  however,  conclude  that  in  general  on  normal, 
well-selected  ears,  the  tip  and  butt  kernels  are  as  likely  to  grow 
as  are  the  central  kernels."  This  experiment  is  at  fault,  from 


128         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

the  fact  that  all  the  kernels  of  the  ear  were  used,  thereby  largely 
obliterating  any  difference  that  might  exist  between  the  butt, 
the  middle  and  tip  kernels  by  introducing  all  the  intermediate 
variations. 

Abnormal  seeds,  being  usually  imperfectly  formed  or  not 
fully  developed,  possess  a  low  vitality  as  a  rule.  The  "tassel 
corn "  affords  an  illustration  in  point  ( Sturtevant) : 

Abnormal  corn  produced  on  the  tassel 

No.  kernels     No.      Per  cent 
Variety  planted      grew        grew 

White  Pop  Corn .24  7  29.2 

Waushakum  Flint 84  19  22.6 

"               "      84  21  25 

11      55  16  29.1 

"  "      24    .    18  75 

Blount's  Prolific      24  11  45.8 

"       24  6  25 

Imperfect  fertilization  is  often  the  cause  of  low 
germinative  vitality,  or  even  of  its  absence.  The  seed 
may  develop  to  the  full  size  and  ordinary  appearance 
and  yet  entirely  lack  the  embryo.  Nageli  considers 
the  following  degrees  of  sterility  of  seeds  due  to 
imperfect  fertilization :  a  small  and  imperfect  fruit 
with  empty  seeds  ;  ordinary  fruit  with  empty  seeds  ; 
ordinary  or  normal  fruit  and  apparently  good  seeds 
but  which  have  no  embryo ;  ordinary  fruit  with  seeds 
bearing  a  minute  and  imperfect  embryo  which  cannot 
germinate.  This  absence  or  imperfection  of  the 
embryo  is  in  some  cases  the  cause  of  lightness  of 
seeds,  although  lightness  is,  no  doubt,  oftener  due  to 
a  deficiency  in  nutrient  matter. 

The  color  of  the  seed  appears  to  exercise  no  influ- 


Color   and    Germination  129 

ence  on  germination,  although  it  is  often  the  expression 
of  some  anatomical  conformation  of  the  seed-coats,  of 
weight,  or  some  other  condition  which  may  have  to 
do  with  the  germination  of  the  seed.  In  some  cases 
the  color  indicates  improper  handling  and  curing  of 
the  seeds.  In  itself,  however,  color  is  unimportant. 

Numerous  tests  made  with  clover  seeds  of  different  colors 
by  Beal,  showed  no  differences  in  favor  of  one  color  over  another. 
Sturtevant  investigated  the  germinating  power  of  light-colored 
and  dark  seeds,  with  the  following  results  : 


Per  cent    Per  cent 
of  germi-   of  germi 
nation  of  nation  01 
light-         dark- 
colored      colored 
seeds         seeds 

Early  Purple  Cape  Broccoli    79          92 
Earliest  Blood  Red  Erfurt  Cabbage     .  74          77 
Netted  Savoy  Cabbage     ....             83          98 

Weight    Weight 
-     of  100      of  100 
E     light-        dark- 
colored    colored 
seeds       seeds 

GRS.           GRS. 

4.08      4.93 
3.46       5.78 
4.23      5.09 

Schweinfurt  Largest  White  Cabbage  .  96          98 
Chou  Mille  Tetes  Kale  or  Cabbage  .    .  91        100 

3.46      5.78 
5.86       7.40 

While  the  results  show  decided  advantage  possessed  by  the 
dark  seeds  over  the  light-colored  ones,  the  gains  are  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  fuller  development  of  the  seeds  rather  than  to  their 
color  merely,  inasmuch  as  the  dark-colored  seeds  are  the  heavier. 
As  a  light  color  is  often  indicative  of  less  weight  or  less  vigorous 
development,  however,  it  may  be  looked  upon,  in  many  cases 
at  least,  as  an  evidence  of  inferior  germinative  vitality.  The 
result  with  endive  seeds,  which  gave  figures  of  an  opposite 
character,  are  not  quoted,  as  the  age  of  the  seed  is  not  desig- 
nated, and  as  this  plant  usually  gives  anomalous  results  with 
fresh  seeds. 

The  latitude  and  general  climatic  conditions  under 
which  seeds  are  grown  appear  to  exercise  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  germination,  although  one  which  is 


130        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

commonly  overlooked.  Seeds  grown  in  the  North 
usually  germinate  more  quickly  and  sometimes  tend  to 
make  earlier  plants  than  those  grown  in  the  South.* 

3.  Seeds   which   are   under-ripe   tend    to    lose    their 
vitality  relatively  early.     Seeds  often  may  be  made  to 
germinate  if  gathered  and  dried  when  still  very  green, 
if  only  the  embryo  is  well  formed.     Seeds  of  tomatoes 
which  do  not   weigh   more   than   two-thirds    as   much 
as  fully  ripe  ones  and  which  are  still  very  green,  may 
be   made   to   grow  when   properly  cured.     Such   seeds 
usually   give   earlier   plants,   although   the    plants   are 
likely  to  bejweaker;   but  the  seeds  do  not  long  retain 
their  viability.   /-^ 

Sagot  (Gard.  Chron.  Sept.,  1874,  329)  succeeded  in  germinating 
green  kernels  of  wheat  which  were  still  soft  and  tender,  collected  at 
a  time  when  nutrient  matters  were  semi-liquid.  When  well  dried 
in  air,  these  kernels  weighed  but  half  as  much  as  ripe  kernels. 
"All  of  them  germinated,  though  slowly."-  Unripe  peas,  weigh- 
ing one-half,  one-fifth  and  even  one-twelfth  of  ripe  peas,  were 
made  to  germinate  by  the  same  experimenter.  The  half-weight 
seeds  germinated  rapidly.  Of  the  twelfth-weight  seeds,  many 
did  not  germinate,  and  some  died  soon  after  the  commencement 
of  their  development.  Half-weight  seeds  of  beans  and  four- 
o'clock  (MiraUlis  Jalapa)  also  germinated. 

Studies  of  unripe  seeds  as  a  factor  in  plant-breeding  have 
been  made  in  this  country  by  Sturtevant,  Arthur  and  Goff.  For 
an  epitome  of  the  results,  see  Arthur  in  American  Naturalist, 
1895,  pp.  806,  904. 

4.  The  manner  of  storing  cmd   handling  determines 
the  longevity  of  seeds  to  a  great  extent.      In  fact,  the 
most  vigorous  and  naturally  long-lived  seeds  may  be 

*See  tests  recorded  in  Bull.  7,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.     For  discussions  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  subject,  see  Essay  17,  in  the  author's  "Survival  of  the  Unlike." 


Conditions   of  Storing  131 

spoiled    in    a    short   time   by   improper   conditions   of 
storing. 

The  failure  of  seeds  from  conditions  of  preserva- 
tion is  illustrated  in  a  method  employed  by  Sturtevant. 
The  following  table  represents  germinations  of  various 
varieties  of  corn,  selected  from  a  large  series  of 
experiments : 

No.  of  No.  of  Percent 

Age  of  seed                                      trials  seeds  tried  germination 

%  year 17  1,075  100 

2  years 37  3,005  100 

3  years 7  725  100 

5  years 1  93  100 

Under  proper  conditions,  therefore,  corn  preserves 
its  vitality  perfectly  for  five  years.  The  next  table 
exhibits  the  germinations  of  the  entire  series  from 
which  the  former  examples  were  selected: 


Age  of  seed 


No.  of 
trials 

No.  of 
seeds  tried 

Minimum 
germina'n, 
per  cent 

Maximum 
germina'n, 
per  cent 

Average 
germina'n, 
per  cent 

.  37 
.    3 

3,550 
250 

41 

30 

100 

48 

94 
42 

.  65 

5,560 

2 

100 

95 

.37 
.    2 

3,625 
200 

52 

80 

100 
81 

85 
80 

.    1 

93 

100 

100 

100 

1  year  . 

2  years 

3  years 

4  years 

5  years 

The  differences  between  the  minimum  percentages 
and  100  per  cent  must  be  due  to  conditions  of  preser- 
vation. The  average  percentage  of  germination  in  each 
case  represents  an  exact  measure  of  loss.  This  loss 
amounts  in  the  total  average  to  18.8  per  cent. 

5.  Mechanical  and  insect  injuries  usually  lessen  the 
germinative  vitality  of  seeds.  The  threshing  process 


132         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

often  cracks  seeds  and  thereby  renders  them  almost 
valueless.  Larbaletrier  asserts*  that  the  injury  from 
the  threshing  machine  in  France,  upon  wheat,  can 
always  be  reckoned  at  15  per  cent  of  the  crop.  He 
cut  kernels  with  the  pen -knife  so  as  to  represent  the 
injury  from  the  machine,  and  compared  their  germi- 
native  power  with  that  of  sound  kernels,  under  three 
methods  of  treatment,  with  the  following  results  : 

Sound  kernels   "  Cut  kernels 

68  per  cent  germinated  34  per  cent  germinated 

rjA      till  II  o<(t(  (( 

99  "      "  "  38    "      "  " 

Sturtevant  mutilated  in  various  ways  the  kernels 
of  Waushakum  Flint  Corn  and  seeds  of  beans  and 
planted  them  under  the  surface  of  soil: 

No.  of  kernels 

or  seeds  No. 

planted         grew 

Corn,  cut  lengthwise  to  bisect  germ 10  1 

Corn,  more  or  less  of  the  albumen  removed  .  20  12 

Corn,  part  of  one  edge  removed 10  3 

Corn,    small    portion    of    chit    removed,    the 

embryo  not  being  injured 10  0 

Bean,  one  cotyledon  removed,  germ  uninjured  .  20  13 

These  researches,  although  showing  that  mutilated 
seeds  may  grow,  nevertheless  prove  that  germination 
is  feeble  and  that  mechanically  injured  seeds  are 
unreliable. 

The  germinative  vitality  of  weevil -eaten  or  "buggy" 
peas  is  low,  and  the  plants  resulting  from  them  are 
usually  feeble.  Beal  gives  t  the  following  results  with 

*Le  Cocq-de  Lautreppe,  Country  Gentleman,  Nov.  10,  1887,  852 
tRep.  Mich.  Bd.  Agr.  1879,  195. 


"Buggy"    Peas  133 

the  germination   of  " buggy"   peas  as  contrasted  with 
that  of  uninjured  peas  of  the  same  variety: 

Where  .         No.  of  seeds   No.  germi- 
Seeds  tested  planted  nated 

Early  peas  of  moderate  size,  smooth, 

sound Soaked  in  water  50        Nearly  all 

"     "buggy",  p..   .   .        "                "  50  1 

"        "       sound Greenhouse  25  25 

"        "     "buggy"     .   .    .    .            "  25  4 

"        "       sound    ....    .  Soil  in  June  12  12 

11       "     "buggy" "           "  25  3 

These  peas  were  tested  in  the  spring  from  seeds 
grown  the  previous  season.  "The  weevil -eaten  seeds 
produced  feeble  plants."  A  year  later  the  same  lot 
of  seeds  was  used  for  a  second  experiment.  Five 
hundred  of  the  weevil -eaten  peas  were  divided  into 
ten  lots  of  fifty  each  and  tested  in  a  greenhouse. 
Alongside  these  the  same  number  of  sound  peas  were 
tested,  all  but  four  of  which,  or  99.2  per  cent,  germi- 
nated. The  table  gives  the  figures  for  the  injured 
seeds : 

First  lot  of  50 12  grew 

Second  lot  of  50   . 10  " 

Third  lot  of  50 8  " 

Fourth  lot  of  50 12  " 

Fifth  lot  of  50 17  " 

Sixth  lot  of  50 11  " 

Seventh  lot  of  50 12  " 

Eighth  lot  of  50 18  " 

Ninth  lot  of  50 17  " 

Tenth  lot  of  50 13  ' ' 

130,  or  26  per  cent 


134        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Trivial  injury  to  the  mere  integument  of  the  seed  may 
hasten  germination.  Such  injury  allows  of  the  absorption  of 
water  and  the  liberation  of  the  germ.  The  practice  of  filing  and 
notching  of  various  hard  seeds — as  of  cannas,  moonflowers  — 
illustrates  this.  The  soaking  and  freezing  of  seeds  have  similar 
effects.  Sturtevant  (3d  Rep.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  328)  has  experi- 
mented with  mechanical  injuries  to  the  integuments.  A  lot  of 
160  Black  Wax  beans  was  divided  into  four  lots  of  40  each. 
Lot  No.  1  was  treated  by  slightly  mutilating  the  seed -coat  opposite 
the  hilum.  Lot  No.  2  had  the  coat  mutilated  in  same  manner,  but 
was  afterwards  greased  with  tallow  to  retard  absorption  of  mois- 
ture. Those  of  Lot  No.  3  were  not  injured.  Those  of  Lot  No.  4 
were  not  injured  but  were  greased  with  tallow.  The  most  rapid 
germinations  occurred  in  the  first  lot,  and  the  next  most  rapid 
in  the  third  lot.  The  slowest  germinations  occurred  in  the  fourth 
and  second -lots,  respectively,  showing  that  an  oily  coat  is  a 
retardative  of  germination.  Following  are  the  figures  : 

No.  which  No.  which  No.  which 

had  germi-  had  germi-  had  germi- 
nated in       nated  in        nated  in 

Seeds  five  days  seven  days  eight  days 

Lot  No.  1,  mutilated 23  30  37 

Lot  No.  2,  mutilated  and  greased  .    .  10  25  35 

Lot  No.  3,  not  mutilated 18  ^  28  40 

Lot  No.  4,  not  mutilated  and  greased  .  4  29 

Tables  of  longevity  of  seeds. — Perhaps  the  most  extended  and 
careful  series  of  investigations  yet  inaugurated  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  vegetative  duration  of  seeds  is  that  under- 
taken by  Messrs.  H.  E.  Strickland,  Daubeny,  Henslow  and  Lind- 
ley,  under  the  auspices  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.  As  many  as  288  genera,  in  71  orders,  were 
subjected  to  test  in  three  places,  Oxford,  Chiswick  and  Cam- 
bridge. A  Seminarium  was  instituted  at  Oxford  and  placed  in 
the  charge  of  W.  H.  Baxter.  Samples  of  seeds  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  furnish  sets  for  testing  at  frequent  intervals  during 
a  century  or  more  were  carefully  stored.  A  summary  of  results 
is  given  in  the  reports  for  1850,  p.  160,  and  1857,  p.  43. 


Tables   of  Longevity 


135 


The  standard  figures  of  longevity  are  those  contained  in 
Vilmorin's  "Vegetable  Garden"  ("Les  Plantes  Potageres"), 
which  are  easy  of  access,  both  in  the  original  and  in  the 
"Horticulturist's  Rule-Book." 

The  following  figures  are  selected  from  a  table  prepared  by 
Sturtevant,  combining  the  tests  made  at  the  New  York  Experi- 
ment Station  during  three  years.  The  tests  were  made  at  such 
widely  separated  intervals,  upon  such  a  number  of  seeds  and  so 
many  varieties,  that  individual  errors  must  be  largely  elimi- 
nated. Yet  the  percentages  as  recorded  in  the  last  column  are 
unsatisfactory,  and  are  proof  of  the  assertion  that  any  general 
statements  of  the  limits  of  vitality  are  necessarily  imperfect  and 
relative.  Since  the  report  in  which  these  results  are  published 
(4th  Eep.  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  58),  may  not  be  accessible  to  the 
reader,  most  of  the  figures  are  reprinted  here: 


No.  of 

Total  No. 

Average 

No.  of 

varieties 

of  seeds 

Age  in 

per  cent 

trials 

tested 

tested 

years 

germinated 

\    3 

1 

150 

1 

63 

-, 
1 

1 

20 

2 

80 

[    1 

1 

30 

3 

57 

[15 

1 

450 

1 

86 

.3 
2 

2 
2 

150 
100 

2 
3 

65 
40 

1 

1 

50 

9 

0 

'  17 

13 

680 

0 

92 

Bean,  common    .    .    • 

6 

3 

340 

1 

96 

6 

2 

240 

2 

69 

.    1 

1 

50 

3 

98 

2 

2 

100 

0 

81 

22 

7 

1,500 

1 

74 

27 

7 

2,350 

2 

70 

Beet      

4 

2 

400 

3 

38 

3 

2 

250 

4 

69 

1 

1 

50 

5 

88 

4 

1 

400 

6 

62 

: 


136         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


No.  of 

trials 

No.  of 
varieties 
tested 

Total  No. 
of  seeds 
tested 

Age  in 
years 

Average 
per  cent 
germinated 

1 

1 

50 

7 

34 

4 

3 

300 

9 

33 

2 

1 

200 

10 

14 

Beet 

2 

1 

100 

12 

40 

2 

1 

200 

13 

TCV 

27 

1 

1 

50 

14 

10 

4 

2 

400 

15 

18 

'    8 

4 

800 

0 

91 

72 

24 

6,750 

1 

85 

70 

21 

5,200 

2 

75 

40 

17 

3,100 

3 

59 

4 

3 

400 

4 

69 

Cabbage      .           »  • 

5 

4 

500 

6 

14 

6 

2 

600 

7 

9 

1 

1 

100 

8 

0 

4 

3 

400 

10 

14 

5 

3 

500 

11 

0.2 

2 

2 

200 

16 

0 

7 

4 

700 

17 

0.4 

2 

2 

150 

0 

48 

46 

11 

4,600 

1 

60 

Carrot 

20 

9 

200 

2 

35 

7 

3 

700 

3 

22 

,    3 

2 

300 

4 

7 

2 

1 

200 

0 

97 

44 

12 

4,400 

1 

86 

Cauliflower  .    .    .    .    • 

14 

7 

1,400 

2 

85 

15 

10 

1,500 

3 

62 

9 

6 

900 

4 

53 

1 

1 

100 

0 

2 

Celery  - 

11 

5 

1,100 

1 

46 

9 

3 

900 

2 

23 

,    1 

1 

100 

3 

0 

Longevity   of  Seeds 


137 


No.  of 

Total  No. 

Average 

1 

vTo.  of 
trials 

varieties 
tested 

of  seeds 
tested 

Age  in 
years 

per  cent 
germinated 

3 

3 

300 

0 

68 

23 

9 

1,122 

1 

85 

2 

2 

150 

2 

57 

4 

3 

108 

3 

95 

Cucumber    .    .    .    .    * 

3 

'2 

100 

4 

72 

2 

1 

50 

5 

60 

1 

1 

50 

13 

40 

1 

1 

50 

19 

14 

8 

4 

700 

1 

50 

2 

2 

100 

3 

39 

F        lant 

1 

1 

50 

4 

46 

1 

1 

50 

6 

28 

2 

1 

200 

9 

15 

'    4 

1 

400 

1 

20 

10 

3 

1,000 

2 

45 

Endive         • 

6 

3 

600 

3 

38 

1 

1 

100 

18 

0 

,     2 

1 

200 

19 

0 

2 

1 

200 

0 

97 

3 

2 

400 

1 

95 

2 

2 

200 

2 

93 

Kale     - 

3 

1 

200 

3 

65 

1 

1 

50 

4 

16 

2 

1 

200 

5 

64 

2 

1 

100 

7 

58 

'    2 

1 

200 

0 

88 

10 

4 

1,000 

1 

80 

3 

2 

200 

2 

76 

, 

1 

100 

3 

94 

Kohlrabi  

4 

3 

400 

4 

51 

2 

2 

100 

5 

44 

2 

1 

200 

17 

0 

.    2 

1 

200 

20 

0 

138         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


I/ 


No.  of 
trials 

No.  of 
varieties 
tested 

Total  No. 
of  seeds 
tested 

Age  in 
years 

Average 
per  cent 
germinated 

Leek         j 

14 
4 

4 

2 

1,400 
400 

1 

4 

57 
15 

4 

2 

400 

7 

5 

45 

20 

4,500 

0 

80 

22 

12 

2,200 

1 

83 

37 

17 

3,694 

2 

78 

Lettuce    - 

24 
17 

13 
9 

2,400 
1,700 

3 

4 

82 
64 

7 

3 

700 

5 

48 

8 

3 

800 

6 

36 

.     1 

1 

100 

9 

0 

8 

3 

429 

0 

86 

26 

10 

1,120 

1 

88 

6 

4 

362 

2 

92 

4 

1 

200 

3 

77 

Melon,  Music  .    .    .    • 

32 

2 

.7 
2 

1,492 
200 

4 
6 

79 
90 

5 

2 

300 

7 

90 

4 

2 

200 

8 

92 

1 

1 

50 

9 

36 

1 

1 

46 

10 

85 

2 

1 

100 

14 

49 

39 

10 

968 

1 

58 

19 

11 

611 

2 

"65 

11 

4 

377 

3 

60 

1 

1 

25 

4 

80 

Melon,  Water  .   .    .    - 

1 

1 

25 

6 

80 

1 

1 

100 

8 

2 

2 

1 

100 

9 

20 

4 

1 

150 

11 

8 

4 

1 

150 

12 

10 

Okra  

r  2 

1 

100 

1 

92 

i 

1 

50 

2 

90 

Longevity   of  Seeds 


139 


No.  of 

Total  No. 

Average 

No.  of 

varieties 

of  seeds 

Age  in 

per  cent 

trials 

tested 

tested 

years 

germinated 

12 

5 

1,200 

0 

77 

196 

20 

15,619 

1 

80 

Onion 

93 

20 

9,200 

2 

56 

21 

12 

2,000 

3 

31 

7 

3 

650 

4 

5 

1 

1 

100 

7 

0 

-  18 

6 

1,800 

1 

57 

Parsley    .    .       .    .    • 

3 

4 

6 

1 

300 
400 

2 
3 

50 

8 

L     5 

4 

500 

4 

10 

2 

2 

200 

0 

13 

7 

5 

650 

1 

28 

Parsnip    • 

6 

3 

386 

3 

9 

1 

1 

50 

4 

0 

2 

1 

90 

6 

0 

'16 

9 

812 

0 

98 

Pea                           .   • 

2 

1 

200 

1 

86 

.  66 

26 

3,588 

2 

84 

9 

9 

893 

0 

93 

16 

6 

1,600 

1 

65 

14 

7 

1,150 

2 

58 

11 

8 

647 

3 

41 

2 

1 

200 

4 

62 

Pepper  * 

6 

3 

600 

5 

19 

1 

1 

50 

6 

4 

2 

2 

150 

8 

3 

4 

2 

350 

9 

10 

5 

3 

500 

10 

0.6 

2 

1 

200 

13 

0.5 

2 

2 

200 

0 

71 

Radish  < 

100 

34 

8,350 

1 

71 

36 

17 

2,500 

2 

57 

16 

8 

1,250 

3 

49 

140         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 


Radish 


Salsify 


Squash 


Tomato 


No.  of 

trials 

No.  of 
varieties 
tested 

Total  No. 
of  seeds 
tested 

Age  in 
years 

Average 
per  cent 
germinated 

6 

6 

350 

4 

54 

4 

3 

350 

5 

37 

2 

1 

200 

6 

12 

1 

1 

100 

7 

3 

2 

1 

200 

8 

14 

-    2 

1 

200 

12 

0 

1 

1 

100 

0 

93 

4 

1 

400 

1 

91 

4 

1 

150 

2 

73 

.    4 

1 

400 

3 

20 

4 

2 

150 

0 

96 

20 

8 

542 

1 

73 

16 

9 

595 

2 

76 

12 

8 

417 

3 

72 

2 

1 

100 

4 

63 

1 

1 

30 

6 

10 

3 

2 

67 

10 

6 

.    1 

1 

50 

14 

0 

'    8 

7 

800 

0 

89 

19 

10 

1,400 

1 

85 

30 

13 

2,050 

2 

89 

15 

10 

1,400 

3 

89 

9 

6 

900 

4 

83 

5 

2 

500 

5 

71 

2 

2 

200 

6 

96 

5 

4 

400 

7 

74 

12 

7 

950 

8 

76 

5 

3 

500 

9 

83 

11 

11 

600 

10 

75 

2 

2 

150 

11 

63 

4 

2 

400 

12 

86 

3 

2 

300 

13 

44 

-    4 

3 

300 

14 

74 

Turnip  . 


Preservation   of  Seeds 


141 


No.  of 

Total  No. 

Average 

No.  of 

varieties 

of  seeds 

Age  in 

per  cent 

trials 

tested 

tested 

years 

germinated 

6 

3 

600 

0 

95 

77 

8 

4,100 

1 

87 

50 

19 

3,400 

2 

95 

28 

12 

1,900 

3 

94 

30 

11 

2,150 

4 

79 

6 

5 

600 

5 

67 

3 

3 

300 

6 

58 

11 

6 

1,000 

7 

56 

2 

1 

200 

8 

65 

.    2 

2 

100 

12 

49 

2.     PRESERVATION    OP    SEEDS 

We  have  seen  (p.  130)  that  the  manner  of  storing 
and  handling  seeds  has  much  to  do  with  their  viability. 
Seeds  which*  are  to  be  stored  should  be  guarded 
against  the  concurrence  of  the  chief  agents  which 
incite  germination :  moisture  and  warmth.  There 
should  also  be  protections  from  insects.  Except  in 
the  case  of  seeds  which  need  to  be  stratified,  moisture 
is  the  most  frequent  agent  of  destruction  of  germi- 
native  vitality.  All  common  garden,  field  and  flower 
seeds  should  be  thoroughly  "cured"  or  "seasoned" 
before  they  are  stored,  by  placing  them  in  a  dry  and 
airy  room. 

The  importance  of  curing  is  illustrated  by  the  following 
tests  (W.  S.  Devol,  Rep.  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.,  1886,  236):  "One 
kernel  was  taken  from  midway  between  the  tips  and  butts  of 
each  of  one  hundred  ears  of  corn  that  had  been  spread  upon  a 
floor  until  well  dried,  then  stored  in  boxes.  When  tested  in  May, 
every  kernel  (100  per  cent)  germinated..  A  sample  was  taken  in 
a  similar  manner  at  the  same  time,  from  another  hundred  ears 


142         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

of  the  same  variety,  but  which  had  been  kept  in  the  crib  in 
the  ordinary  way.  When  tested  in  May,  only  77  per  cent 
germinated."  Samples  were  taken  in  like  manner  at  another 
time  from  fifty  ears  which  were  gathered  in  October  and  properly 
cured.  Tested  in  March,  100  per  cent  germinated.  Fifty  ears 
of  the  same  variety,  which  stood  in  the  shock  until  February, 
were  selected,  and  kernels  taken.  Tested  in  March,  only  72  per 
cent  germinated.  The  same  investigator  made  the  following 
test :  A  lot  of  twenty -five  ears  of  corn  was  selected  from  the 
bin  in  the  middle  of  December,  and  one  kernel  taken  from  the 
middle  of  each  ear  and  tested  ;  96  per  cent  germinated.  The 
ears  were  then  buried  in  loam,  in  a  warm  aspect.  January  8 
a  kernel  was  taken  from  each  ear  and  tested  ;  78  per  cent  germi- 
nated. January  21,  42  per  cent  germinated.  March  16  and 
April  13,  none  germinated.  In  317  tests,  made  by  the  same  ex- 
perimenter, the  average  percentage  of  germination  of  corn  cured 
"by  artificial  heat,  by  hanging  the  ears  by  husks  or  other  means, 
so  as  to  admit  of  thorough  drying,  or  by  ricking  the  ears  or 
spreading  them  thinly  over  the  floor,"  was  87,  while  of  corn  from 
ordinary  bins  and  cribs,  but  69.8  per  cent  germinated. 

The  temperature  which  healthy  seeds  can  endure 
depends  very  largely  on  the  amount  of  moisture  which 
they  contain.  Moist  seeds  cannot  resist  as  high  or  as 
low  temperatures  as  dry  ones  can.  For  this  reason 
seed  corn  and  many  other  seeds  are  likely  to  be  poor 
after  a  hard  winter.  Dry  turnip  seeds  may  resist  a 
temperature  of  90°  to  100°  for  five  or  six  years.  If 
seeds  are  laid  on  ice  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time  they  usually  become  weak  or  worthless,  because 
of  the  low  temperature  coupled  with  the  absorption  of 
moisture.  If  perfectly  dry  the  same  seeds  probably 
would  have  resisted  lower  temperatures. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  vegetable -gardener 
will  secure  best  results  by  storing  his  seeds  in  strong 


How-   Seeds   May   be   Kept  143 

paper  or  cloth  bags  in  a  cool  and  dry  room.  Fairly 
tight  boxes  are  also  useful.  Peas,  beans  and  corn 
should  be  inspected  frequently  for  injury  by  weevil. 
If  the  seeds  are  attacked,  pour  bisulfide  of  carbon  into 
the  box  or  bag  and  close  it  tight.  The  fumes  will 
kill  the  pests.  If  the  quantity  of  seeds  is  large,  the 
bisulfide  should  be  placed  in  an  open  dish  on  top  of 
the  seeds,  for  the  fumes  are  heavier  than  air  and  will 
settle.  In  samples  of  two  or  three  quarts  or  less, 
however,  this  precaution  is  not  necessary.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  the  liquid  to  one  or  two  quarts  of  seeds 
is  ample.  It  will  not  injure  the  seeds  if  it  strikes 
them.  Bisulfide  of  carbon  is  inflammable,  and  should 
not  be  used  near  a  flame. 

3.    TESTING   OF   SEEDS 

Seed  tests  are  of  three  leading  kinds  :  (1)  tests  to 
determine  the  purity  of  the  sample  as  respects  dirt  and 
foreign  species  ;  (2)  to  determine  whether  the  variety 
is  true  to  name  or  kind ;  (3)  to  determine  viability. 

Tests  to  determine  the  content  of  the  sample  may 
be  of  more  importance  than  those  made  to  ascertain 
germinative  power,  yet,  in  practice,  they  are  compara- 
tively infrequent  and  valueless.  These  tests  should 
consider  two  problems,  (a)  the  determination  of  any 
admixture  of  foreign  matter,  as  sand,  stones,  sticks, 
chaff,  etc.,  and  of  seeds  of  other  species  of  plants; 
(b)  the  determination  of  the  purity  of  the  sample 
as  concerns  its  trueness  to  name  and  its  peculiarities 
attained  through  heredity  and  environment.  Neces- 


144         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

sarily,  the  latter  tests  are  more  difficult  of  determina- 
tion, as  they  must  be  made  from  the  product  of  the 
plants,  often  requiring  special  and  expert  training  on 
the  part  of  the  investigator.  They  have  apparently 
not  received  the  attention  they  deserve,  largely  from  the 
prevalent  opinion  that  such  matters  lie  beyond  the  con- 
trol or  check  afforded  by  the  tests  of  impartial  investiga- 
tors, an  opinion  no  doubt  strengthened  by  the  so-called 
contract  printed  on  seed -packets  to  the  effect  that 
the  seller  assumes  no  responsibility  for  the  contents  of 
the  packet.  The  seed  dealer  certainly  cannot  be  held 
responsible  for  failures  which  may  be  fairly  associated 
with  conditions  of  weather,  soil  or  method  of  sowing ; 
but  the  warranty  clause  could  not  shield  him  if  he 
were  to  be  negligent  or  remiss,  or  if  he  failed  to  exercise 
reasonable  caution  in  the  care  and  selection  of  his 
stock. 

Testing  samples  to  determine  the  foreign  matter  or 
the  presence  of  seeds  of  other  species  is  performed  by 
carefully  examining  small  lots  of  seeds  under  a  lens. 
The  operator  should  have  at  hand  for  comparison 
reliable  samples  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  other  plants 
likely  to  occur  in  any  samples.* 

Tests  for  purity  of  the  sample  have  been  carefully  made  in 
Germany,  extending  over  many  years,  especially  at  the  famous 
"seed  control"  station  at  Tharandt,  in  Saxony,  organized  under 
the  direction  of  Nobbe.  This  station,  founded  in  1869,  was  the 
first  of  its  kind.  The  percentages  of  foreign  matter  found  in 
samples,  by  Nobbe,  vary  from  nothing  to  over  80  per  cent.  The 

*Samples  of  weed  seeds,  put  up  in  bottles  which  are  mounted  in  a  serviceable 
case,  have  been  prepared  by  Dr.  B.  D.  Halsted,  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick, 
New  Jersey. 


Adulteration   of  Seeds  145 

average  percentage  of  foreign  matters  in  grass  seeds  was  41,  in 
the  aggregate  of  many  tests.  Of  the  59  per  cent  which  was  true 
to  name  only  18.3  per  cent  possessed  germinative  vitality.  The 
adulteration  of  seeds  in  many  European  countries  has  been  carried 
to  such  an  extent  in  times  past  as  almost  to  challenge  belief. 
Seeds  of  various  weeds,  which  closely  resemble  the  seeds  offered 
for  sale,  were  often  freely  introduced,  and  the  whole,  or  the  adul- 
teration, was  then  cooked  to  destroy  the  life  of  the  seeds,  that  the 
growth  of  the  plants  might  not  expose  the  seller.  Seeds  of  cab- 
bage or  cauliflower  may  be  adulterated  with  mustard  seed,  and 
the  whole  boiled  or  baked.  Old  and  worthless  seeds  are  often 
scoured,  rubbed,  oiled  or  dyed  to  make  them  appear  bright  and 
healthy.  It  has  been  estimated  that  20,000  bushels  of  old  and 
inferior  turnip  seeds  have  been  used  in  London  in  one  year  for 
purposes  of  adulteration.  In  parts  of  Europe  it  is  said  that  a 
medick  (Medicago  lupulina)  is  grown  in  quantities  for  the  adultera- 
tion of  clover  seed.  Some  years  since  there  existed  in  Hamburg 
a  factory  which  made  counterfeit  clover  seed  from  quartz,  using 
this  material  to  the  amount  of  25  per  cent  or  more  of  the 
total  bulk  of  the  seed  sold.  Nobbe  found  enough  weed  seeds 
in  a  certain  sample  of  timothy  seed  to  supply,  if  sown  at  the  ordi- 
nary rate,  twenty-four  weeds  to  every  square  foot  of  land.  Such 
wholesale  and  intentional  adulteration  has  not  been  observed  in 
this  country.  Grass  seeds,  however,  have  been  found  to  be  of  very 
low  quality  in  many  cases,  particularly  those  kinds  not  exten- 
sively used.  Much  of  this  is  undoubtedly  imported.  Beal  writes:* 
"  One  of  the  best  firms  in  New  York  sent  me  some  seeds  of  grass 
which  were  rotten  or  had  been  cooked.  At  another  time  the  firm 
was  about  to  buy  what  was  called  Bermuda  grass.  The  material 
consisted  of  the  chaff  or  hulls  of  Bermuda  grass,  every  one  of 
which  proved  to  be  empty  or  only  in  flower.  Not  one  good  seed 
was  found.  Results  almost  as  remarkable  were  obtained  in  exam- 
ining seeds  of  meadow  foxtail,  which  were  purchased  of  a  reliable 
firm.  The  same,  in  one  case,  was  true  of  Kentucky  blue-grass, 
creeping  bent-grass,  sheep's  fescue,  wood  meadow-grass,  rough- 
stalked  meadow-grass  and  reed  canary -grass." 

*Rep.  Mich.  Bd.  Agr.  1880,  51. 


146         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

In  vegetable -garden  seeds  there  need  be  little  fear 
that  many  weeds  will  be  introduced.  Such  seeds  are 
sold  in  small  quantities  and  they  are  most  carefully 
cleaned.  Adulterations  are  apparent.  There  is  so 
much  competition  in  the  seed  business  that  it  rarely 
pays  to  take  the  risk  of  sending  out  dirty  or  adulter- 
ated seeds.  Even  if  weeds  were  to  be  introduced,  the 
thinning  and  tillage  of  a  vegetable  -  garden  would  eradi- 
cate them.  The  greatest  risk  in  the  buying  of  seeds 
is  the  chance  that  they  may  not  be  true  to  name  or 
that,  if  true  to  name,  the  particular  strain  may  not  be 
the  best.  If  a  dealer  sells  seeds  which  are  true  to  the 
variety,  he  has  satisfied  the  requirements  of  the  law 
and  perhaps  of  trade;  but  his  seeds  may  still  be  in- 
ferior to  his  neighbor's.  There  are  differences  within 
varieties  which  may  make  all  the  difference  between 
profit  and  loss.  If  the  grower  wants  to  be  very  sure 
of  his  product,  it  is  not  enough  that  he  buy  seeds  of 
Winnigstadt  cabbage  :  he  should  know  what  kind  of 
Winnigstadt  he  is  buying.  There  is  no  way  of  test- 
ing the  seed  except  to  raise  the  crop.  One  must, 
therefore,  rely  on  his  seedsman.  This  he  can  do  with 
safety  if  he  selects  a  reliable  seedsman  and  if  he  is 
willing  to  pay  a  fair  price  for  his  seeds.  The  cheap- 
est seeds  may  be  the  dearest. 

The  testing  of  seeds  for  viability,  or  for  the  ability 
to  grow,  is  preferably  made  in  the  soil  under  uniform 
conditions.  The  best  place  for  the  test  is  in  a  green- 
house, but  the  living-room  of  a  dwelling  house  may 
answer  very  well.  Use  a  "flat"  (Fig.  45)  or  other 
shallow  box  or  earthenware  pan  (Fig.  34) .  As  a  rule, 


How   to    Test   Seeds 


147 


the  best  results  are  to  be  attained  by  planting  in  the 
soil  in  conditions  as  nearly  as  possible  approaching 
the  normal  requirements  of  the  particular  species  or 
variety.  A  light,  loose  loam  with  a  good  admixture 
of  sand  is  the  best  soil  for  this  purpose.  A  good 
method  is  to  place  two  or  three  inches  of  loam  in  a 
flat,  wetting  it  as  thoroughly  as  possible  without  pud- 
dling it;  then  cover  the  soil  with  an  inch  or  less  of 


Fig.  34.    The  testing  of  seeds  in  earthenware  pans, 
known  to  gardeners  as  lily-pans. 


sterilized  (baked)  sand,  in  which  to  sow  the  seeds. 
The  loam  keeps  the  sand  supplied  with  moisture. 

The  inexperienced  operator  will  usually  apply  too 
much  water  for  the  best  results  in  germination.  Gar- 
deners are  well  aware  that  very  conflicting  results  may 
be  secured  from  the  same  lot  of  seed  by  different  de- 
grees of  watering.  The  same  remark  applies  to  varia- 
tions in  temperature.  Celery,  for  example,  gives  very 
poor  tests  in  widely  fluctuating  temperatures;  it  is  also 
injured  by  being  kept  at  a  uniformly  high  temperature, 
whereas  melons  and  beans  give  the  best  tests  in  a 
high  temperature. 

The    seeds   should    be   sown    carefully   at    uniform 


148         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

depths  and  at  equal  distances  apart.  In  order  to 
gauge  the  depth,  nail  a  eleat  of  the  required  thick- 
ness on  a  thin  block  (Fig.  35)  and  press  this  cleat  or 

tongue  into  the  soil  to  its  full 
extent :  the  furrow  will  then 
be  of  uniform  depth.  The 
seedlings  should  be  allowed 
to  remain  until  large  enough 
*  ^w  whether  they  are 
likely  to  make  strong  or  weak 

plants.  Not  every  seed  that  germinates  is  worth  the 
planting.  The  following  figures  show  that  even  with 
beans,  which  are  strong -germinating  seeds,  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  the  seedlings  may  be  so  weak  as  to 
be  valueless: 

Figures  on  eight  samples  of  beans,  germinated  in  soil  in  a 
greenhouse^  in  thirteen  days  after  planting 

Seeds  that  Seeds  that 

produced  sprouted,  but 

strong  did  not  produce           Total 

Number  of            plants  strong  plants     percentage  of 

sample            PER  CENT  PER  CENT         germination 

1  84  4  88 

2  92  4  96 

3  84  0  84 

4  84  4  88       . 

5  52  16  68 

6  52  4  56 

7  68  0  68 

8  76  16  92 

If  one  desires  to  know  what  percentage  of  any 
sample  of  seeds  still  retains  life,  he  should  resort  to  a 
sprouting  test.  This  test  is  made  in  an  apparatus  in 


Germination   vs.    Sprouting  149 

which  all  agencies  are  under  perfect  control,  and  the 
seeds  are  counted  and  discarded  as  soon  as  they  have 
sprouted.  There  are  various  patterns  of  germinating 
apparatus.  An  incubator  may  be  made  to  answer  the 
requirements.  Samples  of  seeds  which  give  the  high- 
est sprouting  tests  are  riot  necessarily  the  most  reli- 
able, for  it  is  probable  that  the  percentage  of  vegeta- 
tion, or  subsequent  growth,  does  not  always  bear  a 
direct  ratio  to  percentage  of  latent  vitality. 

Germination  is  not  completed  until  the  young  plant 
is  able  to  support  itself  by  its  own  root -hold  on  the 
ground.  A  seed  may  be  able  to  sprout,  and  yet  be  so 
weak  as  to  be  worthless  for  planting  in  the  soil.  A 
seed  which  may  even  germinate  in  the  soil  in  a  green- 
house may  still  be  so  weak  that  if  the  plantlet  were 
subject  to  the  untoward  conditions  of '  the  garden,  it 
might  perish.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  any  sam- 
ple of  seed  may  give  very  different  percentages  of 
germination,  depending  on  the  method  of  making  test. 
If  the  test  were  made  in  a  machine  which,  like  the 
incubator,  has  a  very  uniform  temperature,  and  the 
seeds  were  counted  and  thrown  away  as  soon  as 
sprouts  appeared,  the  percentage  of  germination  would 
probably  be  very  high.  If  the  same  seeds  were  sown 
in  carefully  prepared  soil  in  a  gardener's  flat  and 
placed  in  the  greenhouse,  the  probability  is  that  a 
somewhat  lower  percentage  would  be  found.  If  the 
seeds  were  planted  in  an  ordinary  greenhouse  bed,  and 
were  to  receive  the  ordinary  watering  which  growing 
plants  receive,  a  still  smaller  percentage  of  germina- 
tion might  appear.  If  the  same  seeds  were  planted  in 


150         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

the    open    ground,    the    percentages    would    likely   be 
still  smaller. 

What,  now,  is  the  fair  germination  test  for  seeds ! 
It  is  apparent  that  the  seedsman  or  seed -tester  cannot 
imitate  the  varying  conditions  of  a  garden.  He  does 
not  know  what  kind  of  a  garden  the  buyer  has; 
therefore,  he  must  give  all  the  seeds  a  uniform  condi- 
tion, and  one  which  will  show  how  many  seeds  will 
sprout  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  What  he 
must  do  is  to  show  the  greatest  possibility  of  the 
sample,  not  what  the  sample  may  necessarily  be 
expected  to  do  under  general  garden  conditions. 
Buyers  often  express  disappointment  that  their  seeds 
do  not  produce  as  many  plants  as  the  germination 
tests  led  them  to  expect.  The  difficulty  was,  no 
doubt,  that  the  germination  test  was  made  under  the 
most  ideal  conditions,  whereas  the  planting  was  made 
under  normal  outdoor  conditions.  It  would  seem  that 
if  one  desires  to  know  what  any  batch  of  seed  is 
capable  of  doing,  he  should  make  a  test  for  himself, 
choosing  fifty  or  one  hundred  seeds  from  the  sample, 
and  planting  them  early  enough  to  determine  the  germi- 
native  vitality  before  it  is  necessary  to  make  the 
regular  planting.  The  germination  tests  which  are 
made  by  laboratory  methods  are  of  the  greatest  value 
in  showing  the  vitality,  vigor  and  the  possibilities  of 
any  sample  of  seed  and  in  the  accumulation  of  scien- 
tific data,  but  people  should  understand  that  these 
tests  are  no  guarantee  of  what  the  seed  will  produce 
under  actual  and  varying  conditions.  The  standard 
set  by  the  laboratory  sprouting  test  is  too  high  for 


Germination  vs.  Sprouting  151 

actual  practical  conditions,   and  therefore  is   likely  to 
mislead. 

The  following  figures,  compiled  from  tests  made  at  the 
Pennsylvania  State  College  (Rep.  Penn.  State  College,  1886,  162), 
indicate  the  differences  between  mere  sprouting  and  germi- 
nation. The  percentages  of  germination  given  in  the  first 
column  were  obtained  from  sprouting  tests,  while  those  in  the 
second  column,  from  the  same  samples  of  seeds,  were  obtained 
from  plantings  made  in  a  hotbed.  Although  these  figures  appear 
to  lessen  the  value  of  sprouting  tests,  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that,  in  general,  a  high  sprouting  test  indicates  a  high  vegetative 
power  ;  but  the  vegetative  power  is  often  or  usually  less  than 

the  sprouting  power. 

Per  cent  of 
full  germina- 
Per  cent       tipn  in  the 
Plant  sprouting         hotbed 

Early  Winnigstadt  Cabbage 87  73 

Early  Flat  Dutch  Cabbage 95  72 

Marblehead  Mammoth  Cabbage 96  72 

Extra  Early  Erfurt  Cauliflower 40  30 

Henderson's  New  Rose  Celery 9  31 

New  York  Improved  Eggplant 24  12 

Green -Fringed  Lettuce 99  52 

Yellow- seeded  Butter  Lettuce  .......  99  70 

Early  Curled  Simpson  Lettuce 99  83 

Early  Boston  Curled  Lettuce 90  90 

Early  White  Turnip  Radish 72  72 

Wood's  Early  Frame  Radish 92  84 

White-tipped  Scarlet  Radish 98  71 

Livingston's  Favorite  Tomato  ...'....  91  32 

Livingston's  Perfection  Tomato 83  71 

Cardinal  Tomato 98  85 

"  "         88  74 

The  following  contrasts  of  seeds,  germinated  in  soil  in  a 
greenhouse  and  planted  in  good  garden  soil  in  the  open,  are 
from  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  7.  The  duplicate  tests  were  made  from 


152         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


contents  of  the  same  seed -packet.  The  seeds  sown  in  the  open 
had  every  chance,  Eain  fell  every  alternate  day.  "  The  soil 
was  loose  and  loamy  and  well  drained. 


SAMPLES 

ii 

"o*^ 

^  •«  o 

«W                    ^ 

O.S 
4» 

Per  cent  of 
difference  II 

Endive,  Green  Curled,  Thorburn  (200  seeds)  . 
Tomato,  Green  Gage,  Thorburn  (100  seeds).. 
Turnip,  Ea.  Six  Weeks,  Dept.  of  Agriculture 
(200  seeds)  

88 
72 

180 

44 
72 

90 

53 
93 

65 

26.5 
46.5 

32  5 

17.5 
57  5 

Pea,    White    Garden    Marrowfat,   Thorburn 
(60  seeds)  

55 

91  6 

181 

90  5 

Celery,  White  Plume,  Thorburn  (100  seeds)  . 
Onion,  Red  We  thersfield,  Thorburn  (200  seeds. 
Carrot,  Early  Forcing,  Thorburn  (100  seeds). 
Carrot,  Vermont  Butter,  Hoskins  (100  seeds). 

41 
148 
70 
65 

41 
74 
70 
65 

22 
84 
39 
45 

11 
42 
19.5 
22.5 

30 

505 
42.5 

The  average  experience  of  careful  seed -growers, 
seed -merchants,  gardeners  and  experimenters  should 
give  us,  in  time,  a  set  of  figures  representing  what 
may  be  called  the  normal  percentage  of  germination. 
These  figures  must  be  the  averages  of  years.  In  some 
years  all  seeds  are  much  better  than  in  others.  In 
many  cases  the  percentages  of  germination  are  much 
increased  by  cleaning  the  sample,  thereby  eliminating 
the  weak  and  light  seeds.  Varieties  of  the  same  species 
differ  in  germinating  qualities.  As  a  rule,  the  higher 
bred  the  stock,  the  lower  is  the  average  viability. 

The  following  table  is  compiled  from  the  actual  experience 
of  one  of  the  largest  American  seed-houses.  It  represents  what 
may  be  expected  to  be  "good"  and  "fair"  percentages  of  ger- 
mination of  first-class  fresh,  commercial  seeds,  one  year  with  an- 
other. In  the  case  of  beet  and  sea-kale,  fruits,  not  seeds,  are 
sown,  and  each  fruit  contains  one  or  more  seeds  :  therefore  the 
figures  are  above  100  per  cent. 


Average    Germination  153 

Good  Fair 

Artichoke .  80  80 

Asparagus 84  80 

Bean 95  90 

Bean,  Lima 90  90 

Beet 135      120  to  150 

(according  to  variety) 

Beet,  Mangels  and  Sugar  .    .    .  180  200 

Brussels  Sprouts 90  90 

Cabbage :   .  90  90 

Carrot 70  70 

Cauliflower  and  Broccoli    ...  90  87 

Celeriac 76  75 

Celery 78  75 

Chicory 70  70 

Collards 95  90 

Corn,  Pop 90  85 

Corn,  Sweet 86  85 

Cucumber 85  85 

Dandelion 65         60  to  70 

Eggplant 56         50  to  60 

Endive 71  70 

Kale  or  Borecole 94  90 

Kohlrabi 90  90 

Leek 86  85 

Lettuce 93  90 

Martynia 68         60  to  70 

Muskmelon 86  85 

Mustard 90  90 

Okra  or  Gumbo 76  75 

Onion 85  85 

Parsley .  .       ...,-..',..  76  75 

Parsnip 71  70  seeds 

Pea 96  90 

Pepper.   ........    .  ;._  .  .     66  60 

Pumpkin 85  85 

Radish 88  85 

Rape.   .    .    .    .    .    ,   .   ,-.   .   .   .  92  90 


154         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Good  Fair 

Rhubarb 80  80 

Salsify 83  80 

Sea-Kale 200  200 

Spinach 79  75 

Squash 80  80 

-  Tomato 86  80 

Turnip,  Flat 94  90 

Turnip,  Rutabaga 96  90 

Watermelon 81  80 

Good  Good 

Barley 93  Rye 95 

Broom  Corn 92  Sunflower .    .  94 

Buckwheat 94  Timothy 96 

Clover 90  Tobacco 78 

Corn 92  Vetches 96 

Grass  Seeds 70  Wheat 95 

Since  variable  results  are  obtained  under  any  treat- 
ment and  from  the  same  parcel  of  seeds,  it  follows 
that  some  check  must  be  employed  in  order  to  reach 
reliable  results.  Two  kinds  of  checks  are  open  to 
the  investigator  :  (1)  the  selection  of  a  representative 
sample,  and  (2)  duplicate  trials.  The  greater  the 
number  of  seeds  used  in  any  test  and  the  greater  the 
number  of  tests,  the  more  reliable  are  the  results. 

In  choosing  a  sample,  the  contents  of  the  whole 
package  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  particularly  if  the 
package  has  been  shipped  and  the  heavier  seeds  have 
settled.  The  seeds  for  trial  should  then  be  drawn 
from  various  parts  of  the  package,  or  from  its  center 
if  the  package  is  small,  and  the  various  lots  mixed 
and  the  sample  for  testing  taken  from  the  mixture. 


How   to   Sow   Seeds  155 

4.   THE    SOWING    OF    SEEDS 

Congenial  temperature  and  a  continuous  supply  of 
moisture  are  the  two  requisites  of  germination  which 
the  gardener  has  to  supply.  He  supplies  these  agents 
by  placing  the  seeds  in  some  loose,  moist,  granular 
medium,  as  a  mealy  and  friable  soil.  If  this  soil  lies 
on  other  soil,  the  moisture  is  drawn  up  by  capillary 
attraction  and  as  it  passes  off  into  the  air  it  moistens 
the  seeds  and  promotes  germination.  If  the  soil  is 
very  loose,  open  or  lumpy,  the  capillary  attraction  is 
broken  and  the  moisture  does  not  rise  to  the  seeds. 
Or,  if  it  does  rise,  the  seeds  are  not  in  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  particles  of  soil  and  do  not  receive  much 
of  the  soil  moisture  ;  moreover,  the  air  which  is  held 
in  the  large  interstices  tends  to  dry  out  the  seed.  To 
a  large  extent,  a  continuous  and  uniform  supply  of 
moisture  is  a  regulator  of  temperature.  It  is  there- 
fore apparent  why  a  finely  divided  and  compact  soil 
is  the  proper  medium  in  which  to  sow  seeds. 

Whenever  the  soil  is  likely  to  become  drier  rather 
than  moister,  as  it  is  at  the  germinating  season,  it  is 
important  to  firm  the  earth  over  the  seeds.  In  large 
field  operations,  as  in  the  sowing  of  the  cereal  grains, 
the  roller  is  ordinarily  used.  Under  market-gardening 
conditions,  the  soil  is  usually  compacted  by  a  roller 
which  is  a  part  of  the  seed  drill  and  which  follows 
just  behind  the  delivery  spout.  When  seeds  are  sown 
from  the  hand,  the  soil  is  compacted  with  a  hoe  or  by 
walking  over  the  row.  Since  this  compacting  of  the 
surface  establishes  capillary  connection  with  the  under 


156         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

soil,  thereby  drawing  up  the  water  and  passing  it  into 
the  atmosphere,  it  is  important  that  this  condition 
be  allowed  to  remain  only  until  the  seeds  have  ger- 
minated and  are  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  The 
seeds  are  kept  moist  at  the  expense  of  soil  moisture. 
Therefore,  as  soon  as  possible  restore  the  surface 
mulch  by  a  rake  or  a  smoothing  harrow.  Seeds  which 
are  planted  very  deep,  as  peas,  may  have  the  soil  com- 
pacted about  them,  and  the  surface  layer  may  be 
loosened  immediately  thereafter,  thereby  preventing, 
to  some  extent,  the  escape  of  the  soil  moisture.  The 
space  between  the  rows  should  be  kept  well  tilled, 
even  before  the  seeds  germinate,  thereby  saving  the 
moisture  in  that  area.  In  other  words,  rolling  or 
compacting  the  soil  over  seeds  is  only  a  temporary 
expedient  to  enable  them  to  germinate  and  to  secure 
their  own  foothold ;  thereafter  the  surface  mulch 
should  be  maintained  in  order  to  save  soil  moisture. 

Seeds  which  germinate  very  slowly,  as  parsnips  and 
celery,  should  be  sown  thick  in  order  that  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  germinating  plantlets  may  break  the 
crust  on  the  soil.  This  caution  is  always  necessary  on 
soils  which  tend  to  bake,  whatever  the  kind  of  seed. 
It  is  well  to  sow  a  few  strong  and  quick -germinat- 
ing seeds  with  those  of  slow -germinating  species  in 
order  to  break  the  soil,  and  also  to  mark  the  row  so 
that  tillage  may  be  begun  before  the  main -crop  seeds 
are  up  and  before  the  weeds  have  taken  possession  of 
the  land.  Seeds  of  radish,  cabbage  or  turnip  may  be 
sown  in  the  row  with  celery,  parsnips,  carrots  and  the 
like.  In  some  cases,  a  crop  of  radish  may  be  ob- 


Quantity   of  Seeds  Required  157 

tained  in  this  way  before  the  main  crop  occupies  the 
land,  but  this  is  only  an  accidental  gain. 

The  cost  of  seed  is  ordinarily  a  trifling  matter  in 
comparison  with  the  expense  of  the  season's  labor  and 
the  value  of  the  crop.  Therefore,  seeds  should  be  sown 
very  freely  in  order  to  avoid  the  risk  of  failure.  Even 
if  five  or  ten  times  more  seeds  are  sown  than  plants 
are  required,  the  extra  expenditure  may  be  justified 
by  the  lessening  of  the  risk.  Another  great  value  of 
thick  seeding  is  that  it  allows  of  more  extensive  thin- 
ning of  the  plants  ;  and  thinning  is  a  process  of  selec- 
tion, and  the  best  are  allowed  to  remain.  It  is  evident 
that  the  chances  of  securing  the  best  are  greater  when 
the  gardener  leaves  one  plant  out  of  ten  rather  than  one 
plant  out  of  three.  The  selection  in  the  seed-bed  or 
the  seed -row  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  cultivated 
plants  have  been  so  greatly  ameliorated  or  improved. 

Nearly  all  the  recommendations  of  writers  as  to 
the  amount  of  seed  for  a  given  length  of  row  are 
in  excess  of  the  number  of  plants  actually  required. 
It  may  be  that  some  of  these  recommendations  are 
higher  than  even  the  risks  will  warrant ;  but,  as  a 
general  rule,  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  is  much  safer 
to  sow  even  the  most  excessive  amounts  than  to  sow 
just  as  many  seeds  as  there  are  plants  needed. 

The  following  tests  were  made  by  the  writer  in  1888  (Bull. 
40,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.).  It  will  be  seen  that  in  some  cases  the 
recommendations  seem  to  be  extravagant  ;  but  in  the  common 
run  of  soils  and  conditions,  and  with  variable  seeds  and  sea- 
sons, they  may  not  be  excessive  after  all. 

QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  FOR  GIVEN  LENGTHS  OF 
DRILL.— Careful  records  of  the  quantity  of  seed  used  in  those 


158         The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

vegetables  ordinarily  sown  in  drills  show  that  the  quantity  re- 
quired is  often  much  less  than  that  recommended  by  seedsmen. 
The  following  figures  indicate  the  extent  to  which  this  is  true, 
the  quantities  recommended  being  taken  from  Henderson's  ne.w 
"  Gardening  for  Profit:" 

Peas.— One  quart  to  100  feet  of  drill  recommended  ;  850  feet 
of  drill  used  four  quarts  of  McLean's  Advancer,  or  one  quart  to 
every  212%  feet  ;  850  feet  of  American  Wonder  required  three 
and  one -half  quarts,  or  one  quart  to  about  245  feet  of  drill  ;  850 
feet  of  McLean's  Little  Gem  used  three  quarts,  or  one  quart  for 
every  283%  feet ;  850  feet  of  Kural  New-Yorker  used  three  and 
one-fourth  quarts,  or  one  quart  for  over  261  feet  of  drill  ;  850 
feet  of  Cleveland's  Alaska  required  three  quarts,  or  one  quart  for 
283%  feet.  The  following  figures  will  show  that  our  sowings 
were  thick  enough  :  one  pint  of  McLean's  Advancer  contains 
1,600  seeds.  A  pint  sowed  a  trifle  over  106  feet  of  drill,  giving 
something  over  fifteen  peas  for  every  foot  of  drill,  or  a  plant 
every  four-fifths  of  an  inch. 

Radishes.  — One  ounce  for  100  feet  of  drill  recommended; 
1,000  feet  of  drill,  sown  thickly  to  Early  Long  Scarlet  Short-top, 
required  nine  and  one -half  ounces  of  seed.  In  this  case  the  rec- 
ommendation is  not  extravagant. 

Beets. — One  ounce  to  50  feet  of  drill  recommended.  Long 
Dark  Blood,  Eclipse  and  Bassano  each  required  four  ounces  of 
seed  for  334  feet  of  drill,  or  an  ounce  for  83%  feet,  and  the  sow- 
ing was  much  too  thick.  An  ounce  of  Long  Dark  Blood  beet 
contains  about  1,300  fruits  or  seed,  or  over  fifteen  and  one -half 
fruits  to  each  foot  of  drill,  as  we  sowed  them. 

Parsnip. — One  ounce  to  200  feet  of  drill  is  recommended  ; 
1,000  feet  of  drill  of  Hollow  Crown  took  four  ounces  of  seed, 
or  an  ounce  to  250  feet  of  drill.  The  sowing  was  made  in  very 
hard  ground,  where  a  thick  growth  of  seedlings  is  necessary  in 
order  to  break  the  crust.  The  sowing  was  over  twice  too  thick. 

Carrot. — One  ounce  for  150  feet  of  drill  recommended  ;  566 
feet  in  hard  ground  used  one  and  one -half  ounces  of  seed,  or 
an  ounce  for  over  377  feet  of  drill,  and  even  then  the  stand  was 
much  thicker  than  desirable. 


Fluctuations  in   Price  159 

Salsify.— One  ounce  is  recommended  for  70  feet  of  drill; 
seven  and  one -half  ounces  were  used  in  558  feet,  or  an  ounce 
for  about  74%  feet  of  drill.  In  this  case  the  estimates  were 
correct. 

In  order  to  determine  what  seeds  fluctuate  most  in  price 
between  different  dealers,  a  comparison  was  made  (in  1899)  of 
the  catalogues  of  ten  leading  American  seedsmen,  with  the 
following  results  : 

Vegetables  fluctuating  most  in  price 

Beans,  wax,  Celery, 

Beans,  bush  Lima,  Corn, 

Beans,  green  pod,  Eggplant, 

Beans,  pole  Lima,  Peas, 

Broccoli,  Pepper, 

Cabbage,  Tomato. 
Cauliflower, 

Vegetables  fluctuating  least  in  price 

Asparagus,  Parsnip, 

Beet,  Parsley, 

Brussels  sprout,  Pumpkin, 

Carrot,  Radish, 

Cucumber,  Rhubarb, 

Lettuce,  Salsify, 

Leek,  Swiss  chard  beet, 

Muskmelon,  Spinach, 

Watermelon,  Squash, 

Onion,  Turnip. 

Seeds  ordinarily  germinate  better  in  freshly  turned 
or  freshly  worked  soil  than  that  in  which  has  lain  for 
some  time.  This  is  because  there  is  more  moisture 
in  the  fresh  soil  than  in  that  which  has  been  exposed 
to  the  weather.  We  shall  find  in  the  following  chapter 
that  gardeners  expect  to  secure  better  success  in  trans- 


160         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

planting  when  they  can  set  plants  on  freshly  plowed 
land. 

If  seeds  are  sown  in  land  which  has  received  heavy 
applications  of  concentrated  fertilizer,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  fertilizer  does  not  come  into  direct  con- 
tact with  the  seeds,  particularly  if  nitrate  of  soda  and 
muriate  of  potash  are  used.  Ordinary  quantities  of 
these  materials  sown  broadcast  are  harmless.  Caution 
should  be  exercised  when  sowing  fertilizer  in  the  drill 
with  seeds:  germination  is  often  hindered.  For  a 
discussion  of  this  subject,  see  Hicks'  "Germination  of 
Seeds  as  Affected  by  Certain  Chemical  Fertilizers." 
Bull.  24,  Div.  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  (1900). 

Roberts*  has  experimented  on  the  influence  of  ma- 
nure-water on  the  vitality  of  weed  seeds  in  manure 
"by  pumping  and  distributing  over  the  entire  mass,  the 
water  leached  through  the  manure  and  caught  in  a 
cistern,  and  repeating  the  operation  about  once  a  week 
during  the  summer.  Not  a  single  weed  seed  germ- 
inated in  the  several  samples  of  manure  so  treated, 
although  placed  under  the  most  favorable  conditions." 

The  depth  at  which  seeds  should  be  sown  depends 
(1)  on  the  soil,  as  to  whether  it  is  moist  or  dry,  well 
tilled  or  poorly  tilled ;  (2)  on  the  species  and  size  of 
the  seed,  and  (3)  on  the  season.  The  finer  and  moister 
the  soil,  the  shallower  the  seeds  may  be  sown.  The 
larger  the  seeds,  the  deeper  they  may  be  sown.  Seeds 
may  be  sown  shallower  in  spring  than  in  summer, 
for  at  the  latter  season  the  surface  soil  is  dry.  An 
old  gardener's  rule  is  to  cover  the  seeds  to  a  depth 

*  Annual  Rep.  President  Cornell  Univ.  1886-7,  73. 


Hardy   and    Tender   Seeds  161 

equal  to  twice  their  diameter.  This  applies  well  to 
greenhouse  conditions,  in  which  the  soil  is  very  finely 
prepared  and  kept  continuously  moist ;  but  in  the 
open  ground,  the  seeds  are  usually  planted  deeper 
than  this. 

Horticultural  plants  are  ordinarily  divided  into  three 
classes  in  respect  to  their  hardiness:  (1)  hardy,  or 
those  able  to  withstand  the  vicissitudes  of  climate  in 
a  given  place ;  (2)  half-hardy,  or  able  to  withstand 
some  frosts  or  other  uncongenial  conditions ;  (3)  ten- 
der, or  wholly  unable  to  withstand  frost.  Seeds  of 
the  hardy  plants  may  be  sown  in  the  spring  as  early 
as  the  land  can  be  made  fit,  or  even  in  the  fall. 
Examples  of  such  seeds  are  sweet  pea,  onion,  leek. 
In  the  northern  states,  however,  very  few  seeds  are 
sown  in  the  fall ;  but  the  land  is  often  prepared  in 
the  fall,  and  the  seeds  are  sown  as  soon  as  the  soil 
is  dry  enough  in  the  spring.  The  seeds  of  half-hardy 
plants,  as  beets  and  lettuce,  may  be  sown  two  or  three 
weeks  before  settled  weather  is  expected  to  come—' 
that  is,  when  it  is  still  expected  that  there  will  be 
hard  frosts.  Tender  seeds,  as  beans,  tomatoes,  egg- 
plants, cucumbers,  melons,  are  sown  only  after  the 
last  frost  has  occurred  and  when  the  ground  is 
thoroughly  settled  and  warm. 

Of  plants  which  are  normally  transplanted,  it  is 
better  to  start  the  seeds  in  a  seed-bed.  These  beds 
may  be  in  the  forcing -house,  hotbed  or  coldframe ; 
or,  if  it  is  not  desired  to  force  the  plants  beyond  the 
normal  season,  it  may  be  made  in  the  open.  There 
are  three  chief  advantages  in  sowing  seeds  in  a  seed- 


162         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


bed,  rather  than  where  the  plants  are  to  grow:  (1)  It 
insures  better  germination,  since  the  conditions  are 
more  uniform  and  congenial ;  (2)  it  saves  time  and 
labor;  (3)  it  enables  the  gardener  to  guard  against 
insects,  fungi  and  accidents,  since  plants  which  are 
in  a  compact  body  can  be  sprayed,  fumigated  or  other- 
wise treated  to  advantage.  In  forcing- houses  and 
frames,  it  is  now  a  common  practice  to  start  seeds  in 
flats  or  boxes  (see  page  62  and  Fig.  12). 

The  seed-bed  should  be  a  small  area  on  land  which 
is  in  the  best  of  tilth.  It  should  be  near  the  buildings 
and  the  water  supply.  If  the  season  is.  hot  and  dry, 
it  may  be  well  to  shade  the  bed  until  the  seedlings 
appear.  The  best  shading  ordinarily  is  a  lath  screen 
(Fig.  36)  laid  on  a  frame  which  stands  two  to  three 
feet  above  the  soil.  Such  a  screen  gives  a  partial 

shade  and  also  allows 
of  a  free  circulation  of 
air ;  and  the  screens 
may  be  removed  and  the 
bed  weeded  at  any  time. 
A  covering  of  brush  is 
sometimes  used,  but  it 
is  less  handy  than  the 
lath  screen.  If.it  is  laid 
directly  on  beds,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  the 
bed  cannot  be  weeded 
and  it  is  likely  to  become  foul.  Sometimes  boards, 
matting  or  other  dense  covers  are  laid  directly  on  the 
soil.  This  may  do  very  well  for  a  few  days,  until  the 


Fig.  36.    Lath  screen. 
The  spaces  and  laths  are  equal  in  width. 


Seed-beds  163 

seeds  have  begun  to  break  the  ground,  but  thereafter 
this  covering  should  be  removed,  else  the  young  seed- 
lings will  be  injured.  The  seedlings  should  always 
be  given  sufficient  head  room  and  light  and  air  to 
enable  them  to  develop  to  their  normal  condition.  If 
the  seed-bed  is  kept  too  wet  and  the  seedlings  are 
too  soft,  the  dam  ping-off  fungi  are  likely  to  work 
havoc.  Sometimes  the  seed-bed  is  made  underneath 
a  tree,  but  this  is  rarely  advisable,  since  the  earth 
usually  requires  too  much  watering  and  the  shade 
may  be  too  dense. 

If  it  is  desired  to  secure  a  quick  germination  of 
seeds  in  a  summer  seed-bed,  it  is  well  to  prepare  the 
bed  the  fall  before,  or  at  least  very  early  in  the  spring, 
and  to  keep  it  covered  with  several  inches  or  a  foot  of 
well -rotted  manure  until  needed.  When  the  bed  is 
needed,  the  manure  is  removed ;  the  soil  is  then 
full  of  moisture  and  the  seeds  germinate  quickly. 
The  fertility  which  has  leached  from  the  manure  also 
enables  the  plant-lets  to  secure  an  early  foothold.  This 
method  is  practiced  in  some  of  the  market -gardening 
centers,  particularly  those  in  which  late  cabbages  and 
cauliflower  are  grown. 

When  sowing  seeds  in  the  open  field,  the  use  of  a 
seed-drill  should  be  encouraged  (see  Fig.  37),  not 
only  because  it  saves  time  and  labor,  but  also  because 
it  enforces  good  preparation  of  the  land.  A  drill  can- 
not be  worked  in  soil  which  is  hard,  dense  and  lumpy. 
Seed-drills,  wheel-hoes  and  smoothing  harrows  make 
better  gardeners.  If  a  seed-drill  is  not  used,  the  seed- 
furrows  for  ordinary  use  may  be  made  by  drawing  the 


Fig.  37.    Types  of  seed-drills  and  planters. 

a.  Model  or  Iron  Age;  6,  Planet  Jr.  hill  and  drill  seeder;  c,  Planet  Jr.  drill 
seeder;  d,  Planet  Jr.  fertilizer  drill,  and  pea  and  bean  seeder;  e,  Billings; 
/,  one-row  corn-planter;  g,  Henderson  corn  and  fertilizer  drill;  h,  Spangler 
corn-planter,  with  fertilizer  attachment;  i,  True's  potato-planter;  j,  Gem. 


Shall   one    Grow   His    Own    Seeds  165 

end  of  a  hoe  handle  or  rake  handle  forcibly  through 
the  soil.  A  garden  line  should  be  used  to  keep  the 
rows  straight.  Land  which  is  planted  to  potatoes,  or 
to  other  deep-planted  crops,  should  ordinarily  be  tilled 
once  or  twice  with  a  smoothing  harrow  before  the 
plants  are  up.  This  maintains  the  surface  mulch, 
saves  the  moisture,  and  prevents  the  weeds  from 
growing. 

When  sowing  in  the  open,  wait  until  the  ground  and 
the  season  are  ready.  Rarely  is  anything  gained  by 
sowing  before  this  time.  The  seeds  rot,  or  the  seed- 
lings are  weak.  The  soil  must  be  fitted  after  the 
plants  are  up.  Have  every  thing  ready,  then  make  the 
plants  grow.* 

5.     THE    GROWING    OF    SEEDS 

"It  is  certainly  a  reflection  upon  a  farmer  to  have 
his  seeds  to  buy."  "It  is  shameful  for  gardeners  and 
farmers  to  be  buying  seeds  that  their  own  soil  and 
climate  will  produce,  after  being  once  furnished." 

The  above  sentences  were  written  by  Washington 
to  the  foreman  of  his  estate  at  Mount  Vernon  in  the 
years  1794  and  1795.  Within  a  century,  times  have 
changed.  The  growing  of  seeds  has  come  to  be  a 
business  by  itself,  requiring  expert  knowledge  of  soils 
aiid  climate,  and  of  methods  of  handling  every  kind 
of  crop.  The  demand  for  seeds  is  very  large.  Com- 
petition is  great.  The  quality  constantly  improves. 
Plant -breeding  has  come  to  be  an  important  factor. 

*For  advice  on  seed  sowing  for  greenhouses  and  general  garden  conditions, 
see  Chap.  1  of  "The  Nursery -Book." 


166         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Under  the  present-day  conditions,  it  is  only  the  excep- 
tion that  a  man  can  afford  to  grow  his  own  seeds. 
With  the  development  of  intensive  market -gardening 
interests,  seed -buyers  are  becoming  more  cautions  and 
discriminating;  and  probably  one -fourth  of  all  vege- 
table-garden seeds  are  now  sold  to  persons  who  grow 
the  product  for  market. 

It  is  costly  business  to  grow  good  seeds.  It  requires 
experience  and  the  exercise  of  a  man's  undivided  atten- 
tion. No  longer  is  it  sufficient  merely  that  seeds  are 
sown  and  that  the  crop  is  harvested.  The  seed -grower 
must  have  an  ideal  and  must  work  to  it.  His  planta- 
tions must  be  "rogued."  That  is,  all  those  plants 
which  do  not  meet  the  breeder's  ideal  are  pulled  up 
and  discarded,  and  the  true  or  typical  stock  is  left  to 
produce  the  seed.  The  truer  and  higher  the  man's 
ideal,  the  better  his  stock  should  be.  It  requires  years 
of  experience  to  enable  one  to  make  for  himself  a  true 
and  practicable  ideal  of  any  variety  of  plant.  He  must 
know  what  the  market  wants.  He  must  know  what 
his  customers  want.  He  must  know  what  will  be  good 
and  useful  under  the  greatest  number  of  conditions. 
He  must  know  what  will  be  likely  to  be  most  stable 
and  invariable.  The  ideal  once  apprehended,  the  seed- 
breeder  must  thereafter  discard  every  plant  which 
does  not  closely  approach  it;  his  stock  must  be  uni- 
form (Fig.  38).  As  soon  as  the  "roguing"  or  selec- 
tion is  neglected,  or  when  new  ideals  are  introduced, 
the  varietal  characteristics  tend  to  disappear  or  to 
change. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  certain  soils  and 


Where    Seeds   may    be    Grown 


167 


climates  produce  the  best  seeds  of  certain  species.  No 
longer  are  all  kinds  of  seeds  grown  indiscriminately  in 
one  place.  The  price  of  labor  is  an  important  factor 


Fig.  38.    The  seed  breeders'  ideal. 

A  pile  of  Osage  Orange  muskmelons  from  which  seeds  have  been  saved, 
showing  the  uniformity  in  the  stock. 


Seeds  which  require  much  care  and  trouble  in 
the  growing  are  raised,  if  possible,  where  labor  is  most 
abundant  and  cheapest.  It  is  no  accident  that  radish 


168         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

seeds  are  grown  in  France,  and  Lima  beans  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Only  when  a  man  is  making  a  specialty  of  some 
vegetable,  and  lives  in  the  place  in  which  the  seeds 
can  be  produced  most  advantageously,  can  he  afford 
to  grow  his  own  seeds;  and  even  then  it  is  a  question 
whether  it  would  not  be  better  and  cheaper  for  him  to 
delegate  the  business.  The  man  who  desires  to  secure 
the  very  best  results  in  the  growing  of  some  specialty 
should  know  where  his  seeds  are  grown,  particularly  if 
his  business  success  depends  on  the  crop  in  question. 
He  should  not  buy  his  seed  indiscriminately  in  the 
general  market.  There  are  particular  strains  of 
all  leading  varieties  of  vegetables  which  are  better 
for  certain  markets  and  conditions.  These  strains  are 
likely  to  be  most  useful  in  the  geographical  area  in 
which  they  are  bred.  Seeds  of  these  strains  are  often 
sold  as  "market -gardeners7  private  stock."  Under 
general  conditions  and  in  other  geographical  regions, 
these  private  stocks  may  be  of  no  advantage,  but  in 
special  places  and  for  particular  purposes  they  may 
make  all  the  difference  between  success  and  failure; 
and  yet  the  differences  in  the  resulting  crop  might  be 
of  such  a  character  that  they  could  not  be  definitely 
described  in  a  seed  catalogue  or  in  an  experiment 
station  bulletin.  When  a  man  is  making  a  specialty 
of  any  crop,  one  of  the  first  things  to  be  done  is  to 
exercise  the  greatest  care  in  the  purchase  of  his  seeds 
and  to  be  willing  to  pay  an  extra  price  for  a  strain 
which  will  satisfy  his  own  conditions.  In  the  old 
time  it  was  considered  to  be  sufficient  if  one  saved  his 


Buy   an   Extra   Supply  169 

seeds;  in  the  present  time  the  mere  saving  is  of  little 
avail:  he  must  breed  his  seeds. 

The  gardener  should  buy  his  seeds  in  bulk,  if 
possible,  particularly  if  he  is  growing  large  areas  and 
for  a  critical  market.  He  can  then  demand  the  best. 
He  will  also  secure  the  seeds  at  a  cheaper  rate.  He 
should  buy  his  seeds  early.  It  may  even  be  well  to 
engage  them  of  the  seed  dealer  a  season  in  advance, 
to  be  sure  that  he  has  the  kind  and  quantity  which  he 
desires.  Since  seeds  are  poor  in  some  seasons,  it  is 
well  for  him  to  keep  at  least  a  partial  stock  on  hand 
from  year  to  year,  particularly  of  those  kinds  which 
retain  their  vitality  for  several  years.  He  is  then 
relatively  independent.  The  gardener  who  grows  largely 
for  a  special  market  of  such  important  crops  as  beet, 
carrot,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  cucumber,  melon,  lettuce, 
radish  and  tomato,  will  do  well  to  purchase  double  the 
quantity  of  seed  which  he  requires  for  the  one  season, 
in  order  that  he  may  preserve  stock  of  the  strains  which 
prove  to  be  particularly  desirable.  The  capital  which  is 
thus  locked  up  in  seeds  is  small,  as  -compared  with  the 
risk  of  being  unable  to  secure  a  desirable  strain.  Buy 
direct  of  a  reliable  seed  dealer  and  not  from  the 
grocery  stores. 

Special  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  seeds  of  celery,  onion,  cauliflower,  cabbage  and 
squashes,  for  these  are  likely  to  deteriorate  or  to  lose 
their  varietal  characteristics  under  poor  culture  and 
indifferent  selection.  Particularly  is  this  advice  im- 
perative in  the  case  of  cauliflower.  There  are  few 
areas  in  which  good  cauliflower  seed  can  be  grown, 


170         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

and  great  skill  is  necessary  to  grow  it  well.  A  sample 
which  sells  for  a  dollar  an  ounce  may  be  much  dearer 
than  one  which  sells  for  four  or  five  times  that 
amount.  Very  cheap  seeds  should  awaken  suspicion. 

More  and  more  are  vegetable  seeds  grown  in 
America.  Below  are  given  the  regions  and  countries 
in  which  the  larger  part  of  the  best  seeds  which  are 
sold  in  North  America  are  now  grown  : 

Asparagus  —  New  Jersey,  New  York  and  Michigan. 

Bean,  bush— New  York,  Michigan  and  Canada. 

Bean,  Lima— New  Jersey  and  California. 

Beet — California,  New  York  and  France. 

Brussels  sprouts  —  Long  Island  (New  York),  and  France. 

Cabbage  —  Connecticut,  Long  Island,  Germany  and  France. 

Carrot  —  California,  Connecticut  and  France. 

Cauliflower— Holland  and  Denmark.     The  Danish  grown  is  by 

far  the  best  and  the  most  expensive. 
Celery —California  and  France. 
Corn,  sweet  —  Connecticut,   New    York,   Michigan,  Ohio    and 

Nebraska. 

Cucumber — New  York  and  Nebraska,  and  also  Michigan. 
Eggplant— New  Jersey. 
Kale— Connecticut  and  Long  Island. 
Kohlrabi— France  and  Germany. 
Lettuce  —  California. 

Muskmelon — New  Jersey  and  Nebraska,  and  also  Michigan. 
Onion— Connecticut,  New  York,  Michigan  and  California. 
Parsley— England  and  France. 
Parsnip  —  Connecticut  and  France. 

Pea — New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Ontario,  (Canada) . 
Pepper  —  New  Jersey  and  France. 
Pumpkin  and  Squash— Principally  Nebraska. 
Eadish — Principally  France . 
Spinach— Holland  and  France. 

Tomato  —  New  Jersey  and  Michigan,  and  also  Iowa. 
Turnip  —  Connecticut,  New  York  and  France. 
Watermelon— Georgia  and  Nebraska. 


Yields   of  Seed -crops 


171 


*  JL 

The  yields  of  seeds  (in  Ibs.)  which  may  be  expected 
from  an  acre,  under  good  conditions,  are  given  below : 


Bean  '•. 
Cabbage  

Cucumber 

When  crop  is 
as  near  maxi- 
mum as  20  bus. 
of  wheat  would 
be,  or  average 
of  good  crop 

600 
250 

(two  years) 
150 

A  maximum       \ 
crop  corre- 
sponding to 
50  bushels 
wheat 

1,500 
800 

700 

field  seedsmen 
vould  figure  on 
Ln  making  con- 
tracts for 
large 
quantities 

500 
200 

100 

Muskmelon  .... 
Pea  
Squash,  Winter  .  . 
Squash,  Summer.  . 
Sweet  corn  .... 

Tomato  • 

125 

.  '          900 
100 
TOO 

.    1,000  to  2,500 
(according  to  var.) 
100 

600 
2,500 
400 
700 
2,500  to  4,000 

400 

100 
800 
100 
100 
800  to  2,  000 

100 

Watermelon  .  .  . 

150  ' 

1,000 

100 

NOTE.— There  is  no  American  work  devoted  to  seeds  and 
seed-growing.  Brill's  "Farm-Gardening  and  Seed-Growing" 
(Orange  Judd  Co.)  contains  brief  "  suggestions  to  seed -growers." 
Because  of  the  scanty  literature,  the  foregoing  chapter  has  been 
made  more  extended  than  the  nature  of  the  book  otherwise 
would  have  allowed.  The  standard  work  on  seeds  is  in  German, 
Nobbe's  "Die  Samenkunde,"  The  seed- breeder  will  need  the 
information  contained  in  Jager's  "Erziehung  der  Pflanzen  aus 
Samen." 


CHAPTER   VI 

SUBSEQUENT   MANAGEMENT    OF  THE    VEGETABLE- 
GARDEN 

TILLAGE  is  the  most  important  item  in  the  subse- 
quent care  of  the  vegetable -garden.  If  the  land  has 
been  well  fitted  before  the  crop  is  put  on  it,  subsequent 
tillage  need  be  employed  only  for  the  purpose  of  main- 
taining the  surface  mulch  in  order  that  moisture  may 
be  saved  and  chemical  and  vital  activities  promoted. 
This  tillage  may  be  light,  rapid  and  easy.  This  light 
tillage  will  keep  down  the  weeds.  Most  farmers, 
however,  are  obliged  to  fit  their  land  throughout  the 
season,  because  it  was  not  thoroughly  prepared  in 
the  beginning. 

How  frequently  one  shall  till  must  be  determined 
by  season,  soil,  crop,  and  amount  of  help.  As  soon 
as  the  soil  becomes  "baked"  or  encrusted,  loosen  it,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture.  As  soon  as  the 
ground  is  fit  after  a  rain,  till  it.  If  the  soil  becomes 
very  hard  and  dry,  it  is  well  to  till  it  just  before  a 
rain,  that  it  may  better  hold  the  rainfall.  Till  shallow. 
If  you  are  skeptical  as  to  the  value  of  tillage  to  save 
moisture,  try  an  experiment.  Till  one  part  of  the 
field  thoroughly  and  neglect  another  part.  The  differ- 
ences naturally  will  be  most  marked  in  a  dry  season. 

(172) 


The   Irrigation    Question  173 

In  the  cool  and  ambitious  days  of  spring,  put  the 
effort  and  the  muscle  into  the  land  :  work  it  into 
condition.  In  the  long  and  hot  days  of  summer, 
merely  keep  it  in  condition. 

1.   IRRIGATION 

In  many  parts  of  the  country,  the  crop  is  determined 
by  the  amount  of  rainfall  rather  than  by  the  plant-food 
in  the  soil.  In  many  cases,  the  crop  requires  more 
water  than  is  supplied  by  the  normal  rainfall  of  the 
growing  season.  Tillage  can  save  much  of  the  water 
which  fell  in  the  early  rains  and  the  winter  snows, 
but  there  may  still  be  insufficient  moisture  for  a  good 
crop.  Irrigation  may  be  necessary  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency. 

In  the  arid  parts  of  the  country,  irrigation  is  a 
necessity.  It  is  a  general  practice.  In  the  humid 
parts  of  the  country — east  of  the  plains — irrigation  is 
often  helpful  and  it  reduces  the  risk  of  a  poor  crop. 
It  is  an  exceptional  or  special  practice. 

Evidently,  in  all  regions  in  which  crops  will  yield 
abundantly  without  irrigation,  as  in  the  East,  the  main 
reliance  is  to  be  placed  on  good  tillage.  Irrigation  is 
an  economic  question.  If,  by  irrigation,  one  can  pro- 
duce enough  better  crop  to  more  than  pay  the  cost, 
the  practice  is  to  be  advised.  Too  often  the  farmer 
thinks  of  irrigation  as  he  thinks  of  fertilizer — as  a 
means  of  giving  him  crops  when  he  does  not  work 
for  them.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  is  only 
the  well -tilled  and  well -handled  lands  that  pay  for 


174         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

either  irrigating  or  fertilizing.  The  in  tenser  the  crop- 
ping, the  more  the  capital  invested,  the  better  the 
market,  the  more  likely  is  irrigation  to.  pay.  Ordinary 
crops  will  not  pay  the  cost  and  risk  of  irrigation  in 
the  East.  The  feasibility  of  it  will  depend,  also,  on 
the  lay  of  the  land,  the  availability  of  water,  the  price 
and  supply  of  labor,  the  character  of  the  given  climate. 

Most  vegetable -gardeners  in  the  East  do  not  find 
it  profitable  to  irrigate.  Now  and  then  a  man  who  has 
push  and  the  ability  to  handle  a  fine  crop  to  advan- 
tage, finds  it  a  very  profitable  undertaking.  It  is  all  a 
local  and  special  problem  in  the  humid  climates.  If  one 
contemplates  putting  in  an  irrigating  plant,  he  should 
visit  a  garden  in  which  one  is  in  operation,  if  possible. 
He  should  buy  a  special  book  on  the  subject. 

In  general  garden  operations,  the  water  is  applied 
on  the  surface,  in  the  furrows  between  the  rows.  The 
main  conduits — which  may  be  ordinary  wrought-iron 
water  pipes — are  carried  along  the  highest  land.  At 
intervals,  hose -bibs  are  provided,  so  that  a  rubber  hose 
can  be  attached  and  the  water  conveyed  into  the  fur- 
rows. When  box  sluices  are  provided,  there  may  be 
openings  or  water-gates  opposite  the  furrows.  If  iron 
pipes  are  used,  faucets  must  be  provided  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  run  and  in  the  sags  for  the  purpose  of 
emptying  the  pipe  of  water  in  the  fall.  The  water 
supply  must  be  ample,  for  when  irrigation  is  most 
needed,  the  air  is  dry  and  hot  and  evaporation  is 
rapid.  The  aim  should  be  to  convey  the  water  in 
narrow  streams  or  furrows  close  to  the  plants,  rather 
than  to  cover  the  entire  space  between  the  rows. 


Irrigation   Experience  175 

The  following  notes  on  irrigation  for  the  market -garden  are 
by  Frederic  Cranefield  ("The  Market  Garden,"  April,  1896).  The 
experiences  are  drawn  from  experiments  made  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station.  For  full  information  on  subjects  connected 
with  irrigation,  consult  King's  "Irrigation  and  Drainage."  The 
book  discusses  garden  irrigation. 

"It  has  been  proved  that  irrigation  may  also  be  profit- 
able even  during  seasons  of  normal  rainfall.  It  is  seldom  we 
get  a  sufficient  amount  of  rain  at  the  time  when  it  is  most 
needed.  Eain  falls  alike  on  the  just  and  the  unjust,  and 
does  not  discriminate  between  gardener  A,  who  desires  a  heavy 
shower  for  late  cabbage  just  set,  and  gardener  B,  who  would 
like  to  have  dry  weather  for  a  few  days.  Eainy  summers  are  not 
unmixed  blessings,  for  they  are  usually  cool  and  cloudy  ones  as 
well.  The  bright,  continuous  sunshiny  days  of  Colorado  and 
California,  with  the  mineral-laden  waters  of  the  mountain 
streams,  produce  crops  that  cannot  be  equaled  in  the  East  or 
South.  The  small  fruit  grower  is  even  more  dependent  upon  an 
abundant  water  supply  at  the  right  season  than  the  gardener. 
Abundant  rains  during  April  will  not  insure  a  full  crop  of  straw- 
berries in  June.  Moisture,  and  lots  of  it,  is  needed  just  at 
fruiting  time.  One  acre  of  corn,  abundantly  watered  just  at  the 
time  the  ears  are  setting,  would  yield  as  much  as  five  acres  not 
watered. 

"Not  every  farmer,  fruit-grower  or  gardener,  may  irrigate 
profitably.  On  the  other  hand,  millions  of  barrels  of  water  run 
to  waste  every  summer,  which  at  slight  expense  could  be  di- 
rected to  the  adjoining  parched  fields.  The  enormous  outflow 
of  dozens,  if  not  hundreds,  of  artesian  wells  in  the  Dakotas  was 
allowed  to  find  its  way  to  some  underground  lake  or  river  for 
years  before  even  the  slightest  effort  was  made  to  utilize  it.  In 
almost  every  section  of  our  country  innumerable  inches  of  rain- 
fall glide  by  our  fields  in  brooks  unchecked,  that  could  be  used 
for  irrigation  purposes  at  trifling  expense.  f  \ 

"The  first  point  to  be  considered  is,  naturally,  the  water 
supply.  If  that  is  abundant  and  reasonably  accessible,  other 
obstacles  may  be  overcome.  The  ground  level  is  of  less  im- 


176         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

portance.  The  profits  to  be  derived  from  the  work  depend 
mainly  upon  the  height  to  which  the  water  must  be  lifted  and 
the  distance  carried  before  it  is  applied.  The  question  that  is 
most  often  asked  of  those  who  are  possessed  of  information  on 
this  subject,  is  :  'Can  I  depend  upon  a  well  and  wind-power 
for  irrigation?'  The  answer  is  ever  the  same.  'It  all  depends 
upon  the  well.'  Professor  Taft,  of  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, has  demonstrated  that  in  some  cases,  at  least,  it  is  prac- 
ticable. In  'American  Gardening,'  Vol.  49,  pages  148-9,  he 
describes  wind -pumps  that  have  been  successfully  used  for  irri- 
gation purposes. 

"The  gardener  considering  irrigation  should  first  look  about 
for  a  stream  of  water  so  situated  with  reference  to  his  land  that 
it  may  be  conducted  thither  and  distributed  by  gravity.  Even 
if  a  considerable  distance  away,  arrangements  might  be  made 
with  the  owner  of  the  water-right  and  neighbors  to  cooperate 
in  the  construction  of  ditches,  etc.  Such  locations,  it  is  true, 
are  rare .  The  next  best  location  is  in  close  proximity  to  a  lake 
or  pond,  from  which  water  may  be  lifted  by  steam  or  other 
power.  The  most  expensive,  but  still  often  practicable  means 
to  obtain  a  water  supply,  is  by  lifting  from  a  well  or  wells.  If 
wind  power  is  used  in  any  case  a  storage  tank  is  almost  a  neces- 
sity,— not  only  that  the  wind  is  quite  sure  to  fail  when  most 
needed,  but  if  more  than  an  acre  is  to  be  watered  a  more  abun- 
dant supply  of  water  is  needed  than  an  ordinary  well  can  sup- 
ply. One  important  point  in  the  distribution  of  water  is  to  have 
a  sufficient  supply  to  cover  the  ground  as  quickly  as  possible. 

"At  the  Wisconsin  Station  irrigated  fields  are  adjacent  to 
and  several  feet  above  Lake  Mendota.  The  rude  plat  here  given 
(Fig.  39)  shows  the  plats  irrigated  in  the  horticultural  depart- 
ment. Other  fields  on  the  farm  were  irrigated,  but  only  the 
garden  part  is  considered  here.  The  letter  p  in  the  diagram 
denotes  the  location  of  a  rotary  pump  connected  with  the  water 
of  the  lake  by  a  suction  pipe.  The  pump  was  operated  by  a 
threshing  engine.  The  double  lines  denote  the  cast-iron  pipe 
used  to  convey  the  water  to  the  fields.  The  heavier  lines  are 
6 -inch  pipes,  the  others  4 -inch.  At  each  point  marked  v  is  a 


Irrigation    Experience 


111 


valve  and  riser.  The  water  was  delivered  from  the  risers  into 
distributing  troughs.  These  are  an  important  part  of  the  outfit. 
They  are  V  troughs,  made  of  rough  lumber,  12  feet  long.  For 
the  larger  troughs  a  12-inch  and  a  10-inch  board  are  used  and 
nailed  together  at  right  angles,  and  cleats  nailed  across  the  top 
every  4  feet.  As  the  water  decreases  in  its  onward  flow  smaller 
troughs  may  be  used,  made  of  an  8-  and  a  10-inch  board.  The 
end  of  one  trough  sets  inside  that  of  the  next,  and  is  supported 


Fig.  39.    Method  of  distributing  water. 

by  stakes  driven  slanting  into  the  ground  and  across  each  other. 
An  iron  pin  placed  in  auger  holes,  bored  in  the  stakes,  serves  to 
fasten  them  together.  A  cross-tie  should  be  placed  across  the 
bottom  to  prevent  the  stakes  from  settling  as  the  ground  be- 
comes wet.  The  water  flows  from  the  trough  through  auger 
holes  on  one  side,  over  each  of  which  is  attached  a  device  for 
regulating  the  flow  of  water.  It  is  made  of  galvanized  iron  and 
consists  of  two  pieces.  There  is  a  hole  in  one  piece  correspond- 
ing in  size  to  the  auger  hole  in  the  trough.  A  slide  is  held  in 
place  by  the  side  edges  of  the  first  piece,  which  are  bent  over. 

L   . 


178         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

By  the  aid  of  these  slides  the  flow  of  water  may  be  regulated  at 
will.  If  a  row  is  receiving  too  much  water  the  gate  may  be 
partially  closed.  Before  the  water  is  turned  on,  the  ground  be- 
tween the  rows  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated  and  small  fur- 
rows run  out  on  both  sides  of  the  rows,  plowing  away  from  the 
row.  A  hand  garden  plow  is  used,  and  only  a  very  slight  furrow 
plowed.  The  plan  is  to  run  small  streams  of  water  alongside 
the  rows  for  several  hours  until  the  ground  about  the  roots  of 
the  plants  is  thoroughly  soaked.  By  this  means  the  ground  is 
all  thoroughly  wet  and  not  puddled.  Persons  without  experience 
in  distributing  water,  are  inclined  in  the  beginning  to  spread 
the  water  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground  between  the 
rows.  This  is  not  the  best  plan.  The  whole  surface  will  bake 
and  the  soil  will  be  puddled  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  by 
the  attendants  walking  over  it  in  distributing  the  water.  By 
the  plan  given  above  it  is  possible  for  the  attendants  to  walk 
on  dry  ground  at  all  times." 

In  a  more  recent  article  (Amer.  Florist,  Sept.  9,  1899)  Crane- 
field  makes  the  following  suggestion  for  the  modification  of  the 
board  trough:  "Bore  one -inch  augur  holes  every  few  inches  in 
one  side  and  near  the  bottom.  Directly  above  each  hole  attach  a 
wooden  button,  slightly  over  an  inch  wide  and  three  or  four 
inches  long,  by  means  of  a  screw;  this  to  be  used  as  a  gate  or 
valve  to  control  the  supply  of  water.  Place  these  troughs  across 
the  head  of  the  field  on  a  slight  incline  and  admit  the  water  at 
the  upper  end.  By  aid  of  these  one  man  can  attend  to  the  wa- 
tering of  a  very  large  field." 

He  continues:  "Irrigated  fields  should  be  given  thorough 
shallow  cultivation  as  soon  as  possible,  to  form  a  mulch  and 
conserve  the  water.  By  reference  to  the  plat  (Fig.  39)  it  will  be 
noticed  that  two  plats  of  strawberries  were  irrigated  in  addition 
to  other  grounds.  The  ground  slopes  gently  towards  the  lake.  By 
placing  a  row  of  troughs  across  the  south  and  higher  end  of 
the  south  plat,  water  was  carried  alongside  of  the  rows  running 
north  and  south  and  the  surplus  water  was  run  across  the  alley 
to  the  lower  plat  and  the  nursery.  After  the  troughs  were  set 
up  one  man  with  a  hoe  was  usually  able  to  attend  to  all  the  work. 


Irrigation   Experience  179 

The  south  plat  is  one -half  acre  in  extent.  Eight  to  ten  hours 
pumping  was  necessary  to  thoroughly  wet  the  ground.  The 
pump  has  a  capacity  of  55  gallons  per  minute,  at  100  revolutions. 
The  water  was  delivered  through  a  2%-mah  pipe,  under  pres- 
sure. Only  those  who  have  had  experience  can  realize  what  an 
immense  quantity  of  water  is  necessary  to  soak  even  one- half  an 
acre. 

"Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  have  an  adequate  water  supply, 
but  it  must  be  rapidly  delivered,  both  for  economy  of  labor  and 
in  order  to  do  the  work  well.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  water 
garden  plats  by  using  a  garden  hose,  allowing  the  water  to 
spread  over  the  ground.  As  a  result,  the  ground  becomes  soaked 
and  mortar -like  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  for  a  short 
distance  from  the  end  next  the  water  supply  and  the  water  does 
not  move  forward.  In  case  the  rows  were  of  any  considerable 
length,  it  would  require  several  days  for  the  water  to  reach  the 
farther  end.  If  water  were  delivered  at  the  rate  of  75  or  100 
gallons  per  minute,  a  much  larger  area  could  be  wet  to  a  depth 
of  several  inches  in  a  few  hours.  The  slope  of  the  ground  is  a 
matter  to  be  considered  before  irrigation  work  is  taken  up.  It 
probably  would  not  be  possible  to  irrigate  a  very  steep  hillside 
by  this  method,  although  by  planting  with  reference  to  watering, 
fields  with  considerable  slope  may  be  irrigated. 

"If  a  field  slopes  from  north  to  south,  with  a  slight  incline  to 
east  or  west,  plant  east  and  west  and  run  the  water  across.  The 
question  is  often  asked  :  <  How  can  I  irrigate  a  perfectly  level 
field  ? '  Such  fields  are  very  rare.  Although  a  field  may  appear 
perfectly  flat,  if  water  were  turned  on  it  would  generally  be  found 
that  slope  enough  existed  to  carry  the  water  across  the  field. 
Thorough  preparation  of  the  ground  is  necessary  before  the 
crops  are  planted.  It  is  necessary  to  make  the  surface  as  nearly 
level  as  possible.  It  is  the  small  dips,  ravines,  'dead'  furrows 
and  hollows  that  need  looking  after.  Shave  off  the  surface  of 
adjoining  elevations  to  fill  these,  so  that  when  the  water  is  turned 
on,  it  will  have  a  fair  chance  to  do  its  work. 

"The  season  of  1895  was  one  of  the  driest  in  the  history  of 
Wisconsin.  From  May  1  to  October  1  the  rainfall  at  Madison 


180         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

was  7.43  inches.  The  rows  of  strawberries  in  plat  B,  as  indicated 
in  the  diagram,  are  fifty  feet  in  length.  This  plat,  except  sixteen 
rows  at  the  extreme  right  end,  was  irrigated  three  times  in  1894, 
after  the  crop  was  harvested.  During  1895  the  plat,  with  the 
exception  of  the  sixteen  rows,  was  irrigated  May  25,  June  10  and 
June  22.  The  crop  harvested  from  the  three  series  is  as 
follows  : 

"Twelve  rows  Warfield,  four  rows  Wilson,  well  irrigated 
throughout  1894  and  1895,  yielded  561.3  boxes. 

"Twelve  rows  Warfield,  four  rows  Wilson,  well  irrigated 
throughout  1894  but  not  in  1895,  yielded  111.6  boxes. 

"Twelve  rows  Warfield,  four  rows  Wilson,  never  irrigated, 
yielded  66.2  boxes. 

"Sixty  rows  of  Fottler's  Drumhead  cabbage  and  forty  rows 
of  Henderson's  Early  Snowball  cauliflower  were  planted  June 
22  in  plats  of  twenty  rows.  The  rows  were  4  rods  long.  The 
ground  was  very  dry  at  the  time  of  setting,  so  a  very  shallow 
furrow  was  run  along  each  row  and  a  stream  of  water  for  each 
row  was  allowed  to  flow  across  the  field  for  several  hours.  After 
the  ground  had  become  sufficiently  dry,  the  plants  were  set  3x3 
feet;  thorough  cultivation  was  given  and  the  field  thoroughly 
irrigated  as  often  as  needed,  with  the  following  results: 

Weight 

No.  of  Per  cent  per  100 

No.  of  salable  of  plants  heads 

Cabbage —  plants  plants  headed  LBS. 

20  rows  irrigated  .    .  421  383  90.9  899 

20  rows  not  irrigated  .  442  347  78.5  590 
Cauliflower— 

20  rows  irrigated  .    .  .435  347  79.7  492 

20  rows  not  irrigated  .  361  235  65.09  306 

"Although  irrigation  was  decidedly  beneficial,  there  was  not 
as  much  difference  as  in  other  crops.  Cabbage  and  cauliflower 
are  strong- rooted  plants,  and  are  able  to  draw  water  from 
greater  depths  than  many  other  plants.  It  is  also  possible  that 
the  unirrigated  plats  received  some  benefit  from  seepage  from 
the  irrigated  plats,  although  separated  by  an  alley  of  considerable 
width." 


More    than    one    Crop   in    one    Season  181 

2 .     DOUBLE - CROPPING 

Whenever  land  and  equipment  are  very  expensive, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  vegetable -gardening  be  inten- 
sive. Capital  and  land  should  be  kept  at  work.  One 
of  the  means  of  doing  this  is  to  practice  what  market- 
gardeners  know  as  double -cropping,  which  is  the  rais- 
ing of  more  than  one  crop  on  the  land  in  one  season. 

Double -cropping  is  of  two  species:  (1)  succession  - 
cropping,  or  the  growing  of  one  crop  after  another  on 
the  same  land;  (2)  companion -cropping,  or  the  grov,- 
ing  of  two  or  more  crops  together. 

Succession -cropping  is  a  kind  of  short  rotation. 
In  selecting  crops  for  succession -cropping,  the  follow- 
ing principles  must  be  borne  in  mind:  (1)  each  crop 
in  the  succession  should  be  able  to  mature  in  less 
time  than  the  whole  season;  (2)  the  tillage  demanded 
by  the  first  crop  in  the  series  should  be  such  that  it 
will  leave  the  laud  in  proper  condition  for  the  suc- 
ceeding crop;  (3)  the  crops  should  be  so  much  unlike 
each  other  that  they  will  not  tend  to  exhaust  the  soil 
by  demanding  similar  elements  of  plant -food,  and  will 
not  carry  diseases  and  insects  from  one  crop  to  another. 

It  is  usually  preferable  to  use  crops  of  different 
botanical  families,  for  by  this  means  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  is  not  so  likely  to  be  impaired,  and  diseases 
and  insects  are  starved  in  the  rotation.  It  is  well  to 
follow  the  root -crops  with  fibrous -rooted  surface- 
feeding  crops.  In  some  cases  the  succession  may 
extend  over  parts  of  two  years,  as  when  strawberries 
are  followed  by  late  potatoes  or  cabbages.  In  this 


182         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

case  the  strawberries  are  set  the  year  before  the  suc- 
cession-crop is  grown.  A  crop  of  rhubarb  or  aspara- 
gus may  be  followed,  when  the  crop  is  finally  turned 
under,  by  a  short- season  crop,  thereby  allowing  the 
cutting  of  the  asparagus  or  rhubarb  during  its  last 
season.  It  is  usually  best  to  follow  a  perennial  crop 
with  an  annual  one.  When  the  succession -cropping 
extends  into  general  farm  operations,  one  or  two 
entire  seasons  may  be  covered  by  each  crop  in  the 
series.  In  this  case  we  have  a  true  rotation  of  crops, 
as  that  term  is  understood  by  most  agricultural 
writers.  The  value  of  rotation  in  the  vegetable- 
garden,  by  means  of  which  lands  are  rested  in  clover 
or  other  sod  crops,  has  already  been  discussed 
(Chapter  III). 

Following  are  examples  of  succession -crops: 

Strawberries,  followed  by  main-crop  cabbage  or  late  potatoes. 
Peas,  followed  by  cabbage,  beans,  tomatoes  or  celery. 
Onions,  beans,  early  beets,  summer  squash  by  kale,  turnip, 

kohlrabi,  winter  radish. 
Spring  spinach,  by  beans  and  tomatoes. 
Radish  and  bunch  onions  by  early  cabbage  or  celery. 
Lettuce,  by  beans  and  tomatoes. 

Early  carrots,  by  autumn  spinach,  kale,  turnip,  winter  radish. 
Early  potatoes,  followed  by  fall  cauliflower  or  turnips. 
Cucumber,  by  spinach,  kale,  turnip,  winter  radish. 
Early  sugar  corn,  by  second  crop  of  same  or  autumn  spinach, 

beans,  tomatoes,  celery. 
Early  cabbage,  followed  by  late  beans  (for  canning),  or  by 

horse-radish. 
Dandelions  by  potatoes. 
Fall -sown  spinach  by  strawberries. 
Kale,  followed  by  potatoes  or  other  main-season  crop. 


Succession  -  crops  183 

The  following  crops  can  be  worked  into  succession -cropping 
schemes : 

Early,  or  incidental  crop 

Beans,  snap,  Mustard, 

Beet,  Onion  (from  bulbs), 

Cabbage,  Parsley, 

Carrot,  Pea, 

Cauliflower,  Potato, 

Cress,  Radish, 

Kohlrabi,  Spinach, 

Lettuce,  Turnip. 

Late,  or  main -crop 

Beans,  shell  and  Lima,  Muskmelon, 

Beet  (mostly  a  farm  crop),         Okra, 

Brussels  sprouts,  Onion  (from  seed),  • 

Cabbage,  Parsnip, 

Carrot  (farm  crop),  Pepper, 

Cauliflower,  Potato, 

Celery,  Pumpkin, 

Corn,  Salsify, 

Cucumber,  Spinach  (fall  crop), 

Eggplant,  Squash, 

Horse-radish,  Sweet  potato, 

Kale  (fall  and  winter  crop),        Tomato, 

Kohlrabi  (fall  crop),  Turnip  and  Rutabaga, 

Leek,  Watermelon. 

In  companion -cropping,  or  the  growing  of  two  kinds 
of  plants  on  the  land  simultaneously,  the  following 
principles  are  to  be  considered  :  ( 1 )  the  crops  should  be 
such  as  will  mature  at  widely  different  seasons ;  (2) 
one  crop  should  be  of  distinctly  less  importance  than 
the  other,  or  be  a  "catch  crop;"  (3)  the  crops  should 
be  such  as  will  profit  by  the  same  methods  of  tillage 


184         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

and  fertilizing  ;  (4)  so  far  as  possible,  they  should  be 
of  different  botanical  families  or  kinds  in  order  that 
they  may  not  tend  to  leave  the  soil  unbalanced  or  to 
breed  the  same  kinds  of  insects  and  fungi. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  companion -cropping  there 
is  a  main  crop  and  a  secondary  crop.  Ordinarily,  the 
main  crop  occupies  the  middle  part,  or  middle  and 
later  part,  of  the  season.  The  secondary  crop  matures 
early  in  the  season,  leaving  the  ground  free  for  the 
main  crop.  In  some  cases,  the  same  species  is  used 
for  both  crops,  as  when  late  celery  is  planted  between 
the  rows  of  early  celery. 

Following  are  examples  of  some  companion -crops: 

Radishes  with  beets  or  carrots.      The  radishes  can  be  sold 

before  the  beets  need  the  room. 

Corn  with  squashes,  citron,  pumpkin  or  beans  in  hills. 
Early  onions  and  cauliflower  or  cabbage. 
Horse-radish  with  early  cabbage. 
Lettuce  with  early  cabbage. 

"I  have  some  methods  of  growing  vegetables  in  this  garden 
that  I  will  describe.  With  some  vegetables  I  have  managed  to 
grow  two  crops  on  the  same  ground  in  one  year.  Early  sweet 
corn  and  winter  squashes  make  a  profitable  combination.  The 
small  varieties  of  corn  that  do  not  shade  the  ground  too  much, 
and  will  be  ready  for  market  in  July  and  August,  should  be 
planted.  Plant  the  corn  in  rows  3  feet  apart  and  3  feet  apart 
in  the  rows,  and  make  the  hills  for  the  squashes  between  each 
alternate  hill  of  corn,  placing  compost  or  well -rotted  manure 
in  the  hills  where  the  squashes  are  planted. 

"Another  combination  is  early  peas  and  sweet  corn.  I  plant 
the  peas  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  with  a  one-horse 
corn-planter,  cultivate  the  peas  until  the  last  of  May,  then  plant 
the  corn  between  the  rows  of  peas  with  the  corn -planter.  The 


Double  -  Cropping  185 

peas  can  be  marketed  the  last  of  June,  and  the  ground  given  to 
the  corn.  The  combination  can  be  varied  by  planting  cabbages 
or  celery  for  the  late  crop.  A  few  years  ago  I  grew  a  large  field 
of  peas  and  corn  in  this  way,  and  did  nearly  all  the  work  with 
the  horse  planter  and  cultivator. 

"Early  bunch  onions  and  celery  make  another  profitable 
combination  of  crops  to  grow  on  the  same  ground  in  one  year. 
The  onion  sets  should  be  planted  very  early  in  the  spring,  and 
when  the  onions  are  large  enough  for  bunching,  they  should  be 
marketed  and  the  ground  planted  to  celery.  With  this  intensive 
system  of  culture  the  ground  should  be  made  very  rich." — W.  H. 
Jenkins,  Amer.  Gard.  XX.  850. 

Following  are  remarks  on  double -cropping  by  Professor 
Thomas  Shaw,  in  "The  Market  Garden,"  July  1895: 

A.  Three- crop  system. — "1.  Onion  sets  may  be  planted  early 
in  the  season  and  onion  seeds  may  then  be  sown.  In  the  former, 
between  the  rows  and  suitably  spaced,  cauliflowers  may  be 
planted,  and  later,  between  the  cauliflowers,  in  the  center  of  the 
squares,  two  or  three  cucumber  seeds  may  be  dropped.  The 
onion  sets  may  be  used  by  taking  those  out  first  which  grow 
around  the  cauliflowers,  and  these  in  turn  may  be  removed  in 
time  to  let  the  cucumbers  develop.  Midway  between  the  rows  of 
onions  grown  from  seeds,  plant  radishes,  lettuce,  peppergrass, 
spinach  or  some  other  early  relish,  which  will  have  ample  time 
to  grow  and  to  be  consumed  before  harm  can  come  to  the  onions 
from  the  shade  of  any  one  of  these  crops.  Then  when  the  onions 
are  well  grown,  turnips  can  be  sown  midway  between  the  rows. 

"2.  When  sweet  corn  is  to  be  grown,  the  spaces  for  the  rows 
can  be  marked  out  and  left  vacant  until  the  time  of  'he  planting 
of  the  corn.  Between  these  spaces  and  early  in  the  season  at 
least  two  rows  of  dwarf  peas  may  be  sown.  These  will  be 
matured  before  the  corn  will  harm  them  or  before  they  will  harm 
the  corn.  Then  such  seeds  as  squashes,  pumpkins  or  citrons  may 
be  put  in  between  the  hills  of  corn.  These  will  cover  the  ground 
occupied  previously  by  the  peas,  and  a  bean  or  two  may  be 
dropped  near  each  corn  hill.  The  corn  stalks  make  supports  for 
the  beans  as  they  climb. 


186         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

W3.  Some  kind  of  relish  may  be  grown.  It  may  be  followed 
by  early  cabbages  or  cauliflowers,  and  these  in  turn  by  late 
cabbages  or  turnips,  or  any  other  kind  of  vegetable  that  may  be 
grown  late.  These  are  instances  wherein  three  crops  may  be 
obtained  in*succession  the  same  season. 

AA.  Two-crop  system. — "1.  Peas  of  the  dwarf  varieties  may 
be  grown  in  rows.  Tomatoes  suitably  spaced  may  be  planted 
between  these,  and  before  the  shade  of  the  tomatoes  injures  the 
peas,  the  latter  will  have  been  used  in  allaying  the  appetites  of 
hungry  people. 

"2.  Early  potatoes  may  be  grown,  followed  by  cabbages, 
turnips  or  winter  radishes,  and,  if  desired,  some  early  relish 
may  be  grown  between  the  rows  of  early  potatoes. 

"3.  Some  early  crop  may  be  grown  midway  between  the 
rows  of  beets  and  carrots.  As  to  the  distance  between  the  rows, 
much  will  depend  on  the  character  of  the  soil.  The  richer  the 
soil,  the  wider  apart  should  be  the  rows.  About  15  inches 
between  the  rows  of  onions,  carrots  and  dwarf  peas  may  be 
considered  average  distances.  By  planting  these  in  succession, 
two  and  three  crops  in  a  season  may  be  obtained,  and  without 
irrigation,  on  the  same  piece  of  land.  These  crops  will  grow  side 
by  side  like  brothers  without  injuring  one  another,  as  men  often 
do.  If  the  later  crop  should  grow  a  little  too  fast  for  the  one 
previously  sown,  just  nip  off  some  of  the  outer  leaves  that  pro- 
trude too  far,  and  both  crops  will  manifest  their  thanks  by 
making  a  good  growth. 

AAA.  Two-crop  and  three-crop  system  with  horse  tillage. — 
"  Some  instances  may  now  be  given  of  growing  two  crops  in  mar- 
ket-gardens where  much  of  the  labor  is  done  by  horses,  and  where, 
in  consequence,  the  crops  should  not  be  crowded  as  to  distance. 

"1.  Any  kind  of  an  early  crop,  as  radishes,  may  be  grown,  to 
be  followed  by  late  potatoes,  cabbages  or  turnips. 

"2.  Field  peas  can  be  sown  early,  to  be  followed  by  cab- 
bages or  celery  or  some  other  suitable  crop.  Early  corn  or 
potatoes  may  be  removed,  to  be  followed  by  cabbages  or  turnips, 
and  between  the  rows  of  the  corn  these  crops  may  be  planted 
before  the  former  has  completed  its  maturity.  Three  crops  may 


Principled   of   Transplanting  187 

be  obtained  in  a  favorable  season,  as,  for  instance,  a  crop  of 
radishes,  followed  by  early  cabbages,  and  these  in  turn  by  field 
roots,  such  as  turnips.  But  in  market -gardens  it  is  usually  more 
economical  to  remove  the  one  crop  before  the  crop  which  is  to 
succeed  it  has  been  sown.  The  preparing  of  the  land  by  horse 
labor  is  thus  more  easily  done.  Other  successions  of  crops  will 
occur  to  those  engaged  in  the  work  as  being  more  or  less 
suitable  to  the  conditions  which  they  have  to  face." 


3.    TRANSPLANTING 

The  first  consideration  in  successful  transplanting 
is  to  have  good  plants.  They  should  be  well  grown. 
Plants  which  are  thin,  slender  and  soft  will  nearly 
always  collapse  or  suffer  when  they  are  exposed  to 
field  conditions.  If  they  come  from  hotbeds  or  forc- 
ing-houses, they  should  have  been  hardened  -off  either 
in  the  hotbed  itself  or  by  transference  to  cold-frames. 
If  the  plants  have  been  transplanted  two  or  three 
times  in  the  seed-bed,  they  will  suffer  less  when  they 
are  put  in  the  open  field.  Consult  pp.  72-79. 

The  second  consideration  is  to  have  the  land  in 
prime  condition.  It  should  be  in  fine  tilth  and 
thoroughly  and  deeply  worked.  Plants  live  better  when 
they  are  transplanted  into  newly  turned  land.  Such 
land  is  moist.  The  plants  quickly  secure  a  foothold. 

Transplanting  is  more  successful  and  is  employed 
to  a  larger  extent  in  the  humid  climates  east  of  the 
great  lakes  than  in  the  West.  In  fact,  in  the  more 
arid  parts  of  the  country  it  is  usually  discouraged, 
and  it  is  recommended  that  seeds  be  sown  where  the 
plants  are  to  stand. 


188         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

The  ideal  time  to  transplant  is  just  before  a  rain. 
Just  after  a  rain  is  also  a  good  time,  particularly  if 
the  weather  comes  off  cloudy.  Cool  and  cloudy  days 
should  be  chosen  if  possible.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  transplant  in  hot  and  dry  weather,  the  late  after- 
noon or  evening  should  be  chosen,  if  possible,  in  order 
that  the  plants  may  have  time  to  straighten  up  during 
the  night.  When,  however,  the  land  is  thoroughly 
prepared  and  the  plants  are  well  grown  and  not  too 
large,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  transplanting 
throughout  the  day.  If  the  season  is  very  dry,  the 
plants  may  be  watered.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
have  a  boy  follow  with  a  pail  and  put  a  dipperful  of 
water  about  each  plant.  Or,  in  larger  operations,  a 
tank  on  wheels  is  drawn  through  the  fields.  After  the 
water  soaks  away,  the  dry  loose  earth  should  be 
drawn  about  the  plant  to  afford  a  surface  mulch  and 
to  prevent  the  soil  from  baking.  Transplanting  ma- 
chines drawn  by  horses  are  now  becoming  popular  for 
large -area  practices,  and  these  are  supplied  with  a 
watering  device.  In  small  gardens,  it  is  practicable 
to  shade  the  plants  for  a  day  or  two  by  setting  a 
shingle  on  the  south  side  of  them,  letting  it  slant 
over  the  plant. 

When  transplanting,  the  plants  must  be  kept  away 
from  the  sun  when  they  are  out  of  the  ground,  and 
they  should  also  be  kept  wet.  It  is  nearly  as  essential 
to  wet  the  tops  as  the  roots.  The  roots  are  wet  to 
prevent  them  from  dying.  The  tops  'are  wet  to  pre- 
vent transpiration  or  evaporation  of  moisture.  Pud- 
dling, or  dipping  the  roots  in  mud,  is  sometimes 


How   to   Transplant 


189 


Fig.  40.    Dibbers. 


advised  as  a  protection,  but  it  is  less  useful  with 
small  plants  than  with  trees,  because  the  fine  roots 
are  matted  together  by  the  operation.  When  trans- 
planting by  hand,  it  is  customary  to  have  a  boy  carry 
the  plants  in  a  covered  basket  or 
box,  and  to  drop  them  just  ahead  of 
the  planters.  One  boy  ordinarily 
will  drop  for  two  rows  of  planters. 
The  boy  should  not  drop  faster 
than  the  plants  are  required  by  the 
workmen. 

Set  the  plants  deep.  Gardeners  usually  prefer  to 
set  them  to  the  seed-leaf,  even  though  they  were  an 
inch  or  two  higher  than  this  in  the  original  seed-bed. 
This  deep  planting  holds  the  plants  in  position  and 
places  the  roots  in  the  moist  and 
cool  earth.  Press  the  earth  firmly 
about  the  roots  and  the  crown:  this 
is  very  important.  The  best  tool 
for  opening  the  land  is  a  dibber 
(Fig.  40),  which  makes  a  hole,  but 
does  not  remove  the  earth.  In  the 
working  hand  hold  the  dibber;  in 
the  other  hand,  hold  the  plant;  the 
plant  is  lowered  into  the  hole  made 
by  the  dibber,  and  both  hands  are 
then  pressed  tightly  about  the  plant 
as  the  earth  is  closed  against  it. 
Sometimes  the  dibber  is  thrust  alongside  the  plant 
and  the  hole  filled  by  pressing  the  earth  against  it 
(Fig.  41).  If  the  plants  are  rather  large,  and  par- 


Fig.  41.    The  dibber  and 
how  to  use  it. 


190         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

ticularly  if  they  have  not  been  transplanted  before,  it 
is  well  to  cut  off  a  part  of  the  foliage  in  order  to 
hinder  evaporation.  One -half  or  one -third  of  the 
top  may  be  twisted  or  cut  off  with  very  good  results 

(Fig.  42). 

^e-vf^VN  '"' T)  x-^s  Of  late  years,  transplanting 
V\  \  \\l  I  If  i)  machines  drawn  by  horses  have 
become  popular  for  the  planting 
of  cabbages,  tomatoes  and  other 
large-area  crops  (Fig.  43).  If 
the  plants  are  well  grown  and 
of  the  right  size,  these  machines 
work  very  satisfactorily.  They 
not  only  expedite  and  lessen 
labor,  but  the  plants  are  more 
likely  to  live  than  when  trans- 
planted in  the  ordinary  way. 
There  are  also  various  kinds  of 
hand -transplanting  devices  which 
Fig.  42.  showing  how  much  remove  a  large  body  of  earth 


of  the  top  may  be  removed      wjtn    tne    plant    an(J    <Jrop    ft    i 
in  transplanting.  .  . 

a    hole   of   similar   size.      These 

tools  are  useful  for  small  areas  or  for  amateur  work, 
but  they  are  not  adapted  to  general  field  operations. 
They  require  too  much  labor  and  time.  They  are  not 
expeditious.  Lately,  however,  machines  for  aiding 
transplanting  by  hand  have  come  into  use,  and  are 
often  very  satisfactory. 

Some  kinds  of  plants,  of  which  melons  and  cucum- 
bers are  examples,  do  not  transplant  readily.  It  is 
customary  to  start  these  in  boxes,  pots  or  on  the  bot- 


Transplanting   Devices 


191 


toms  of  hard  sods, 
the  field  with  the 
suffer  in  the  removal. 
There  are  various  kinds 
of  transplanting  boxes 
in  the  market.  Some 
melon  growers  use  the 
ordinary  splint  pint  or 
quart  berry  baskets, 
which  can  be  bought 
very  cheap.  Others  use 
paper  oyster  buckets.  A 
common  device  in  at 
least  one  of  the  melon  - 
growing  regions  is  shown 
in  Fig.  44.  It  is  a  mere 
band  or  strip  of  basket- 
splint  which  is  tacked 
together  at  the  ends  and 
has  neither  top  nor  bot- 
tom. The  material  is 
cut  at  a  basket -factory, 


The  plants  can  then  be  taken  to 
earth    intact,    and   they   will   not 


Fig.  43.    Transplanting  machines. 

The  tipper  one  is  the  Bemis;  and  the  lower  ones  the  Tiger. 
(See  pages  190.  193-4.) 


192         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 


at  an  expense,  in  the  flat,  of  about  85  cents  per  thou- 
sand. These  forms  are  nested  in  the  hotbed  or  cold- 
frame,  filled  with  earth,  and  four  or  five  seeds  planted 
in  each.  They  are  readily  moved  by  running  a  spade, 
flat  trowel  or  shingle  under  them.  A  box  will  make  a 
hill  of  plants.  If  one  has  a  greenhouse  equipment,  he 
may  use  2 -inch  or  3 -inch  pots  (Fig.  45) ;  but  unless  he 

has  the  pots  on  hand  for 
other  uses,  it  would  not  pay 
to  buy  for  this  particular 
purpose.  One  of  the  best 
ways  to  handle  cucumbers 
and  melons  is  to  plant 
them  on  sods,  which  are 
laid  bottom  up  in  the  hot- 
bed. They  are  cut  into 
squares  of  about  four 
inches.  A  little  fine  earth 
is  sifted  over  and  between 
them,  in  which  the  seeds 
are  planted.  With  the  heat 
and  moisture  of  the  bed, 
these  sods  decay  and  the 
plants  thrive;  but  they  will  hold  their  shape  for  a 
month  or  more  (Fig.  45).  Old  tin  fruit-cans  are  some- 
times used  for  this  purpose.  The  cans  are  thrown 
into  a  fire,  when  the  tops  and  bottoms  melt  off,  and 
the  sides  are  then  fastened  together  with  a  tack  or  a 
bit  of  wire  and  are  used  as  forms  in  which  to  grow 
plants.  One  difficulty  with  them  is  that  they  are  too 
large  and  take  up  too  much  room.  They  are  rela- 


Fig.  44.  Form  in  which  to  start 
melons.  The  flat  is  14  inches 
long,  and  3  %  inches  wide,  mak- 
ing a  form  or  box  3  inches 
square  and  3  %  inches  deep. 


Transplanting   Devices 


193 


tively  too  deep.     It  is  usually  best  to  use  some  cheap 
splint  device,  as  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

It  is  now  customary  to  handle  plants  in  flats 
(Fig.  45).  These  are  shallow  boxes  about  3  inches 
deep,  and  of  any  convenient  size.  A  box  15  x  20,  or 
18  x  24  inches  is  easily  handled.  These  boxes  may  be 
made  to  order;  but  many  gardeners  make  them  from 
soap  boxes,  by  sawing  each  box  up  into  several  flats 


Fig.  45. 


on  a  sod;   gardener's  flat;   plants  in  2-inch 
and  3  %-inch  pots. 


or  sections  and  adding  bottoms.  Such  a  box  will  hold 
100  plants  if  they  are  not  transplanted,  or  one -third 
or  one -half  that  number  of  transplanted  plants.  From 
flats  a  quick  man  can  transplant  from  5,000  to  6,000 
plants  in  a  day  if  the  soil  is  light  and  in  good  con- 
dition. With  a  horse  transplanting  machine  several 
times  this  number  can  be  set.  Ten  acres  of  cabbage 
plants  sometimes  may  be  set  in  a  day  by  means  of  a 
horse  machine.  From  20,000  to  40,000  plants  have 

M 


194         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

been  be  set  in  one  day.     The  machines  are  also  used 
for  transplanting  nursery  stock. 

The  transplanting  machine  can  be  used  when  the 
ground  is  too  dry  and  too  hard  to  allow  of  transplant- 
ing by  hand,  and  the  plants  are  more  likely  to  live. 
The  machine  itself  does  not  handle  the  plants.  A  man 
drives.  A  plow  opens  a  deep,  narrow  furrow,  and 
water  is  dropped  into  the  furrow.  Shoes  or  rollers 
follow  and  close  the  furrow,  packing  the  earth.  On 
the  rear  of  the  machine  sit  two  boys,  with  the  plants. 
It  is  their  business  to  drop  plants  in  the  furrow  be- 
tween the  opening  plow  and  the  shoes.  By  practice 
the  boys  can  regulate  the  distance,  and  also  learn  just 
how  to  drop  the  plant  so  that  it  will  be  caught  by  the 
sides  of  the  closing  furrow  and  not  fall  over.  A 
mechanical  device  guides  the  hand.  By  quick  work, 
plants  can  be  set  as  close  as  1  foot  apart.  When 
conditions  of  soil  and  weather  are  just  right,  two  men 
with  dibbers  and  a  boy  to  drop  might  set  nearly  as 
many  plants  as  a  transplanting  machine,  but  they 
would  not  do  the  work  so  well.  In  a  dry  time  and 
in  hard  ground,  the  machine  shows  its  advantage  at 
the  best. 

4.    CHOOSING  THE  VARIETIES 

One  of  the  most  engrossing  incidents  connected 
with  the  running  of  a  market -garden  or  fruit -farm  is 
the  selection  of  varieties.  There  are  the  greatest  differ- 
ences of  opinion  respecting  the  merits  and  demerits  of 
any  variety.  This  proves  that  the  value  of  a  given 
variety  is  not  a  question  of  principle,  but  of  local 


What    Varieties    to    Choose  195 

adaptation.  It  is  apparent  that  every  gardener  who 
has  had  experience  with  a  variety  is  able  to  judge  of 
its  merits  for  his  particular  conditions.  His  experi- 
ence is  a  law  unto  him,  although  it  may  be  only  a 
suggestion  to  his  neighbor.  Choice  of  varieties  is  a 
local  matter.  Varieties  must  be  tested  for  every  pur- 
pose and  condition.  They  are  tested  by  actually  grow- 
ing them  under  the  given  condition  and  for  the  given 
purpose. 

In  selecting  varieties,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  the 
following  points  : 

(1)  Have  an  ideal,  or  classify  your  own  ideas; 
know  what   kind   of   a  variety  is  wanted   and  what 
it  is  wanted  for,  and  then  select  that  variety  which 
seems  best  to  satisfy  the  ideal. 

(2)  The  older   the  variety,  as  a  rule,  the   more 
reliable   it  is   for  general -purpose  conditions.     The 
very  fact   that   it  is  old   indicates  that   it   has   had 
sufficient  value  to  enable  it  to  persist.     It  may  not 
be    the    best,    however,    for    some    special -purpose 
condition,  for  then  a  variety  of  peculiar  or  particular 
attributes  is  desired.     The  shorter  the  description  in 
the   catalogue,  the   greater   is   the   probability   that 
the   variety   is   generally   useful.     It   is   only   after 
varieties  have  been  proved  and  have  become  staple 
that  descriptions   become  short  and   tame  :  they  do 
not  need  extravagant  advertising. 

(3)  Prove  the  novelties.     New  varieties  are  to  be 
tested,  not    to    be    grown   wholesale   and    for    the 
general  crop.     The  novelties  are  attractively  adver- 
tised :   such  advertising   is  necessary  if   they  are  to 


196         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

be  sold,  for  their  merits  are  yet  unknown.  The 
advertising  attracts  the  beginner  and  the  person 
who  desires  to  experiment.  The  novice  selects  the 
novelties. 

Every  gardener  should  have  a  small  area  in  the 
personal  part  of  his  grounds  which  he  devotes  to  the 
testing  of  new  varieties.  He  should  buy  a  packet  of 
every  new  variety  of  those  vegetables  in  which  he  is 
particularly  interested.  He  will  not  have  sufficient 
capital  at  stake  to  be  disappointed  if  half  of  them 
fail  to  prove  worthy  under  his  conditions  and  for  his 
ideals.  The  mental  quest  is  one  of  the  chief  delights 
in  the  making  of  experiments.  If  a  novelty  fails,  the 
quest  is  nevertheless  as  keen  and  the  fun  is  as  great. 
An  experimental  plat  without  failures  is  not  worth  the 
having.  The  experiment  station  test  will  be  useful  in 
suggestions,  but  it  cannot  tell  what  varieties  will  be 
best  for  your  conditions,  markets  and  ideals. 

Now  and  then  one  of  the  novelties  will  prove  to 
be  useful  to  the  man  who  tries  it.  He  will  then  en- 
large his  area  of  it  and  test  it  on  a  commercial  scale. 
In  a  year  or  two  it  may  supplant  some  of  the  older 
varieties.  In  this  way  the  gardener  keeps  abreast  of 
the  time  and  ahead  of  his  competitor.  Novelties  are 
essential,  for  we  depend  on  them  for  progress. 

5.    WEEDS 

Weeds  are  mere  incidents  in  good  farming.  They 
are  the  constants  in  poor  farming.  This  is  not  because 
the  good  farmer  spends  more  time  killing  weeds,  but 


Weeds  197 

because  he  tills  better  and  manages  his  land  more  skil- 
fully. It  is  in  neglected  areas  that  weeds  are  most 
prevalent, — along  the  roadside,  in  the  run-out  meadow 
or  pasture,  in  the  barnyard  or  front  yard,  in  the  poorly 
tilled  vegetable  garden.  Many  farmers  seem  to  think 
that  good  farming  consists  in  killing  weeds  and  bugs; 
but  the  best  farming  consists  in  not  having  them.  Of 
course  the  farmer  can  not  expect  ever  to  be  rid  of  these 
things,  but  he  should  think  more  of  prevention  than  of 
eradication.  A  weed  is  only  a  plant  that  is  not  wanted. 
Horse-radish  may  be  a  weed  in  a  potato  field,  and 
potatoes  may  be  a  weed  in  a  horse-radish  field.  Potatoes 
are  weeds  in  potato  fields  when  potatoes  are  planted 
too  thick. 

There  is  no  royal  road  to  weedless  farming.  Fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  means  of  keeping  weeds  in 
check  : 

1.  Practice  rotation;  keep  ahead  of  the  weeds.     Cer- 
tain  weeds    follow  certain   crops  :    when   these  weeds 
become  serious,  change  the  crop. 

2.  Change  the  method  of  tillage.     If  a  weed  per- 
sists, try  deeper  or  shallower  plowing,  or  a  different 
kind  of  harrow  or  cultivator,  or  till  at  different  times 
and  seasons. 

3.  Harrow  the  land  frequently  when  it  is  in  fallow 
or  is  waiting  for  a  crop.     Harrow  it,  if  possible,  after 
seeding  and  before  the  plants  are  high  enough  to  be 
broken  by  the  implement.      Potatoes,  corn  and  other 
things  can  be  harrowed  after  they  are  several  inches 
high  ;    and  sometimes  the  land  may  be  harrowed  be- 
fore the  plants  are  up. 


198         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

4.  Practice  frequent  tillage  with  light  surf  ace- work- 
ing  tools,  throughout   the    season.      This   is   hard   on 
weeds  and  does  the  crop  good. 

5.  Pull   or   hoe  out  stray  weeds  which  escape  the 
wheel  tools. 

6.  Clean  the  land  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested  : 
and  if  the  land  lies  open  in  the  fall,  till  it  occasionally. 
Many  persons   keep  their  premises  scrupulously  clean 
in  the  early  season  but  let  them  run  wild  in  the  fall, 
and  thus  is  the  land  seeded  for  the  following  year. 

7.  Use  clean  seed,  particularly  of  crops  which  are 
sown  broadcast,  and  which,  therefore,  do  not  admit  of 
tillage. 

8.  Do  not  let  the  weeds  go  to  seed  on  the  manure 
piles,  in   the   fence   corners,  and   along   the   highway. 

9.  Avoid  coarse  and  raw  stable  manure,  particularly 
if  it  is  suspected  of  harboring  bad  company.      Com- 
mercial fertilizers  may  be  used  for  a  time  on  foul  land. 

10.  Sheep  and  pigs  sometimes  can  be  employed  to 
clean  the  weeds  from  foul  and  fallow  land.     Land  in- 
fested with  Jerusalem  artichokes  is  readily  cleaned  if 
hogs  are  turned  in. 

11.  Induce  your  neighbor  to  keep  his  land  as  clean 
as  you  keep  yours. 

Rank  pigweeds  and  their  ilk  are  a  compliment  to 
a  man's  soil.  Land  that  will  not  grow  weeds  will  not 
grow  crops, — for  crops  are  only  those  particular  kinds 
of  weeds  which  a  man  wants  to  raise.  Weeds  have 
taught  us  the  lesson  of  good  tillage.  There  is  no  indi- 
cation that  they  intend  to  remit  their  efforts  in  our 
behalf. 


Bugs   and   Diseases  199 

6.    INSECTS  AND  FUNGI 

The  vegetable -gardener  may  expect  to  be  troubled 
with  insects  and  plant  diseases.  Many  of  these 
troubles  are  very  serious  and  are  beyond  the  direct 
control  of  the  cultivator.  The  gardener  must  circum- 
vent them  rather  than  combat  them.  He  must  avoid 
them  by  means  of  strategy  rather  than  kill  them 
directly.  Insects  which  feed  openly  on  the  tops  of 
plants  are  nearly  always  amenable  to  direct  treatment 
with  poisons  or  other  sprays.  Of  this  class  are  potato- 
bugs  and  plant -lice.  Those  troubles  which  appear  in 
the  inner  parts  of  plants  or  in  their  roots  are  not 
open  to  direct  treatment,  and  in  such  cases  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  place  must  be  relied  on  to 
keep  the  enemies  in  check.  Insects  and  diseases  are 
incidental  or  secondary  facts  in  every  garden  planta- 
tion. The  primary  thing  is  to  make  the  plants  grow; 
the  secondary  thing  is  to  keep  the  bugs  off. 

Following  are  some  of  the  means  by  which  the 
vegetable -gardener  may  hope  to  lessen  or  avert  the 
losses  from  insects  and  diseases: 

1.  By  means  of  rotation  in  crops  and  in  methods 
of  tillage.  The  shorter  the  rotation,  the  less  is  the 
liability  to  serious  insect  attacks.  It  is  rare  that  in- 
sects and  diseases  appear  suddenly  in  great  numbers. 
They  increase  year  by  year,  and  in  some  favorable 
season  prove  very  destructive.  If  the  kinds  of  crops 
have  been  various,  the  probability  is  that  they  will 
not  have  gained  a  serious  foothold,  and  that  they 
will  be  held  in  comparative  subjection.  It  is  essen- 


200         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

tial  that  the  crops  of  a  rotation  be  of  such  different 
kinds  that  the  same  kinds  of  insects  or  fungi  will  not 
thrive  on  them.  Wire  worms  are  starved  out  by  a 
short  and  quick  rotation.  If  the  land  is  infested  with 
them,  the  best  thing  to  do,  therefore,  is  to  put  the 
land  into  other  crops  and  other  uses,  not  to  try  to  kill 
them  by  poison  baits.  They  are  usually  most  serious 
in  those  lands  which  have  been  laid  down  to  grass  for 
some  time.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  white 
grubs,  which  appear  in  grass  lands.  They  are  rarely 
troublesome  when  short  and  thorough  rotations  are 
used. 

2.  If  the  land  becomes  seriously  infested  with  any 
one  pest,  it  is  best  in  general  to  discontinue,  for'  two 
or  three  years,  the  growing  of  the  crop  on  which  they 
live.  This  ordinarily  is  cheaper  and  quicker  than  to 
endeavor  to  destroy  the  pest  by  direct  means.  This  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  club -root  of  cabbage 
and  cauliflower.  This  disease  may  be  lessened  some- 
what by  thoroughly  dressing  the  land  with  lime;  but 
it  is  usually  cheaper,  and  always  more  effective,  to 
cease  the  growing  of  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  turnips 
for  a  time,  and  to  grow  other  kinds  of  crops  on  the 
land.  It  will  usually  be  cheaper  for  a  man  to  buy  his 
home  supply  of  cabbages  than  to  attempt  to  grow  them 
on  land  which  is  badly  infested  with  either  the  club- 
root  fungus  or  the  cabbage  maggot. 

In  1894,  soil  from  a  cabbage  field  which  was  seriously  in- 
fected with  club -root,  was  sown  in  the  hills  of  a  cabbage  field 
at  Cornell  University.  The  soil  was  clay.  The  plants  were 
ruined  by  the  disease.  In  1895  cabbages  and  turnips  were  grown 


Bugs   and   Diseases  201 

on  the  area.  Five- sixths  of  the  cabbages  were  ruined.  About 
10  per  cent  of  the  turnips  were  affected,  but  not  seriously.  In 
1896  the  area  was  fallow,  with  good  tillage,  until  late  summer, 
when  turnips  were  sown.  Again  the  turnips  showed  a  little 
disease.  In  1897  and  1898  the  area  was  occupied  by  general 
vegetable  crops  other  than  cabbages,  cauliflower  and  turnip. 
In  1899  cabbage  and  cauliflower  were  again  grown  on  the  area, 
and  they  were  free  from  the  disease.  The  region  from  which  the 
soil  was  imported  still  suffers  from  club-root;  but  here  it  was 
starved  out  in  two  or  three  years. 

3.  Make  every  effort   to  secure  strong,  stocky,  con- 
tinuous-growing  plants.     Such   plants   are   less   liable 
to   the  attacks   of   many  kinds   of   insects   and   fungi. 
Even  if  they  are  attacked,  they  have  a  better   chance 
of   coming   through  alive.     Weak  and   soft   plants  are 
poor  for  any  purpose,  but  they  are  particularly  unsat- 
isfactory  when    they   must   withstand    the    attacks   of 
insects  and  fungi. 

4.  Destroy    plants    which    are    seriously    affected, 
particularly  those  which  are  attacked  by  fungi.     If  the 
vines  are   thrown  on   the  manure   pile,  the  probability 
is   that   the  disease  will   be  distributed   the  next  year 
in   the   manure.      If    the   manure   is   very   thoroughly 
rotted    and   composted,  much   of   the    danger   will    be 
averted  ;   but  even  in  that  case  it   is  wise  not  to  take 
the   risk  with   such  serious   diseases   as   club -root,  po- 
tato blight  and  rot,  and  the  blight  of  melons,  cucum- 
bers  and   tomatoes.     In   the   fall,  all   diseased   plants 
and  products  should  be  collected  and  burned. 

5.  In    infected    seed-beds,    use    new    or    sterilized 
soil.     Do  not  add  to  the  seed-bed  soil  from  a  field  in 
which  diseased  crops  of  the  given  kind   have  grown. 


202         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

This  is  good  advice  when  one  is  filling  the  hotbed  or 
the  greenhouse  benches.  The  .soil  in  permanent  seed- 
beds— as  in  hotbeds  and  houses  —  can  be  sterilized  by 
heating  it.  W.  W.  Rawson  gives  his  method  of  steri- 
lizing soil  in  which  greenhouse  or  winter  lettuce  is  to 
be  grown :  "  Have  two  large  boxes  that  will  hold  a 
cart-load  each — 5  feet  long,  4  feet  wide  and  3  feet  high. 
Place  in  the  bottom  pipes  laid  6  inches  apart  with 
holes  3  inches  apart  on  both  sides,  and  open  at  the 
ends.  Connect  these  with  the  steam  pipe  from  the 
boiler.  Fill  the  box  with  soil  and  let  on  steam,  with 
a  pressure  of  50  Ibs.,  to  one  box  at  a  time.  When  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  has  reached  200°,  shut  off  and  let 
in  to  other  box.  Let  each  box  stand  for  an  hour,  so 
as  to  thoroughly  cook,  then  take  out  and  put  where  de- 
sired to  be  used.  Bring  back  soil  to  take  place  of  this, 
and  by  that  time  the  other  box  will  be  ready  and  the 
steam  can  be  again  let  into  the  first  box;  then  empty 
the  other  box.  In  this  way  two  men  will  be  kept 
busy  with  a  horse  and  cart  all  day,  if  needed,  and  will 
sterilize  20  cart-loads." 

6.  Insects  and  fungi  can  be  killed.  Nowadays, 
spraying  is  the  economical  means.  The  gardener  should 
know  what  insects  and  diseases  are  likely  to  appear 
on  any  crop  and  then  be  prepared  to  fight  them. 
The  time  to  make  this  preparation  is  before  the  crops 
are  planted.  In  the  winter  season  he  should  secure 
his  pumps  and  nozzles,  buy  the  materials  for  the  vari- 
ous mixtures,  and  inform  himself  as  to  what  difficulties 
will  be  likely  to  confront  him.  He  is  then  forehanded 
and  knows  immediately  what  to  do  when  the  trouble 


Spraying  203 

arises.  He  should  know  when  the  pests  are  likely  to 
appear.  He  should  learn  something  of  their  habits, 
that  he  may  know  the  vulnerable  points.  Every  gar- 
dener should  buy  a  good  book  on  insects  and  perhaps 
another  on  fungous  diseases,  and  then  keep  up-to-date 
by  reading  the  agricultural  papers  and  the  experiment 
station  bulletins. 

An  essential  point  in  the  application  of  any  spray 
is  timeliness.  The  minute  the  trouble  appears,  the 
spray  should  be  applied.  The  pest  may  be  dispatched 
more  readily  at  this  time,  and  also  with  less  expense 
of  material  and  effort;  and  the  plants  will  not  have 
suffered  seriously.  Another  important  item  in  the 
spraying  of  plants  is  thoroughness.  A  bug  will  not 
go  where  poison  is:  the  poison  must  be  put  where 
the  bug  is.  The  bug  is  likely  to  avoid  the  poison: 
therefore,  the  only  safe  way  is  to  put  the  poison  on 
every  part  of  the  plant.  One  thorough  spraying,  which 
completely  covers  the  plant,  is  worth  more  than  a  half 
dozen  sprayings  when  the  operator  merely  sprinkles 
the  tops  of  the  leaves.  Be  sure  that  the  spray  is  of 
the  right  kind  and  well  made:  then  do  not  be  afraid 
to  apply  it.  Paris  green  and  other  insecticides,  and 
even  some  fungicides,  may  be  applied  dry  by  means  of 
a  bellows  device;  but  this  is  scarcely  practicable  in 
windy  weather.  Most  persons  prefer  to  apply  both 
insecticides  and  fungicides  in  a  water  spray.  Keep 
posted  on  spraying  devices  by  sending  for  the  cata- 
logues of  manufacturers  and  by  reading  the  bulletins 
and  papers. 

Some  of  the  requisites  for  a  good  pump  have  been 


23  24 

Fig.  46.    Various  types  of  spraying  nozzles. 

1,2,  Cyclone  nozzles;  3,  4.  Vermorel  nozzles;  5,  double  Vermorel;  6,  longshank 
Vermorel;  7,  bordeaux  nozzle;  8,  undersprayer  (Boekel);  9,  Y  for  two  nozzles; 
10,  carnation  nozzle  (Gould);  12,  same,  with  pole  attachment;  11,  Masson 
nozzle  (Gould) ;  13,  McGowen;  14,  graduated  spray;  15,  16,  lilly  (Rumsey); 
18,  same  with  long  tube;  17,  calla  (Gould) ;  19,  Boss  (Field  Force  Pump  Co.) ; 
20,  21,  22,  Nixon  nozzles:  23,  Winkle  nozzle  for  Bordeaux;  24,  Winkle,  for 
Paris  green. 


Fungicides 


205 


Fig.  47.    A  good  rig  for  potatoes. 


discussed  on  page  120.  It  is  important  that  the  appa- 
ratus have  power.  It  should  break  up  the  spray  and 
should  drive  it  into  every  nook  and  crevice  of  the 
plant.  On  a  pair  of  old  wagon  wheels  an  ingenious 

man  can  construct  a 
good  platform  for  the 
mounting  of  a  spray- 
ing rig.  See  Figs.  46, 
47,  48. 

For  plant  diseases, 
the  staple  fungicide  is 
Bordeaux  mixture. 
This  is  a  preparation 
of  sulfate  of  copper 
and  lime,  diluted  with  water.  It  is  probable  that  the 
lime  has  some  slight  fungicidal  value,  but  its  chief 
merit  is  to  make  the  material  adhere  to  the  foliage 
and  to  neutralize  the  caustic  effects  of  the  sulfate  of 
copper.  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  applied  with 
advantage  even  before  the  disease  appears,  for  it 
adheres  closely  to  the  foliage  and  prevents  the  germi- 
nation—or, at  least,  the  growth— of  the  spores  of  the 
fungi.  If  Bordeaux  mixture  is  well  made  and  well 
applied,  it  will  adhere  to  the  foliage  for  some  weeks, 
particularly  if  it  has  time  to  set  before  rain  falls.  In 
case  of  serious  attacks,  however,  it  is  well  to  spray 
every  few  days,  because  new  shoots  and  new  foliage  are 
constantly  appearing;  and  it  is  practically  impossible 
in  any  one  spraying  to  cover  every  part  of  the  plant. 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  blue  whitewash;  it  discolors 
the  plants.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  the  foliage  and 


Fig.  48.    Types  of  power  and  tank  outfits. 

1,  Victor  outfit  (Field  Force  Pump  Co.);  2,  Caswell  sled  sprayer;  3,  Caswell  geared 
sprayer  ;  4,  wagon  outfit  (Morrill  &  Morley) ;  5,  mounted  barrel  sprayer; 
6,  Eureka  tank  outfit  (Merrill  &  Morley). 


Insecticides  207 

fruits  free  from  discoloration,  it  may  be  advisable  to 
use  the  ammoniacal  carbonate  of  copper  solution. 
This  material  is  ordinarily  somewhat  cheaper  than  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  but  it  does  not  adhere  so  long, 
and  its  practical  fungicidal  value  is  generally  not  con- 
sidered to  be  so  great. 

It  is  not  every  kind  of  plant  disease  which  is 
destroyed  or  averted  by  means  of  Bordeaux  mixture  or 
other  sprays.  Whenever  the  whole  plant  wilts  or  seems 
to  be  affected  internally,  it  is  probable  that  there  is 
some  injury- at  the  root  or  in  some  part  of  the  main 
stem.  The  trouble  in  this  case  may  be  due  to  root 
insects,  borers  or  to  some  bacterial  or  other  internal 
trouble  which  cannot  be  reached  by  external  applica- 
tions. In  these  cases  the  man  has  no  recourse  except 
to  destroy  the  affected  plants,  and  then  by  means  of 
strategy  to  avoid  the  recurrence  of  the  trouble. 

For  insects,  arsenic  and  kerosene  (coal -oil)  are  the 
leading  remedies.  Of  insects  which  feed  on  the  ex- 
ternal parts  of  the  plant,  there  are  two  general  kinds, 
so  far  as  their  manner  of  eating  is  concerned, — the 
chewing  or  biting  insects,  as  the  beetles  and  larva} 
(worms),  and  the  sucking  insects,  as  the  various 
scales,  plant-lice  and  squash -bug.  Insects  of  the  for- 
mer type  are  dispatched  by  poisoning  their  food. 
This  is  usually  done  by  spraying  the  plants  with  Paris 
green  or  some  other  arsenical  poison.  Insects  of  the 
second  type  comprise  those  which  suck  the  juices  of  the 
plant  and  must  be  destroyed  by  some  material  which 
kills  them  by  contact.  Of  these  materials,  the  chief  are 
the  various  kerosene  preparations  and  whale-oil  soap. 


208         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Insecticides 

Paris  green. —  The  standard  insecticide  for  all  chewing  or 
biting  insects  is  Paris  green.  This  material  varies  considerably 
in  composition,  and  its  price  fluctuates;  therefore  many  sub- 
stitutes are  in  the  market.  Perhaps  the  best  of  the  home-made 
substitutes  is  the  arsenite  of  soda  and  lime,  which  is  described 
below.  Since  Paris  green  may  contain  more  or  less  soluble 
arsenic,  which  is  caustic  to  foliage,  it  is  now  the  practice  to  add 
lime  to  it,  no  matter  on  what  plants  it  is  used.  Lime  also  makes 
it  adhere  better.  The  ordinary  strength  is  one  pound  of  the  Paris 
green  to  200  to  300  gallons  of  water.  On  potatoes  and  some 
other  plants,  however,  it  may  be  used  as  strong  as  one  pound  to 
100  gallons,  particularly  if  lime  is  added.  If  the  amount  of  lin.e 
is  one-half  or  one-third  as  much  as  the  Paris  green,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  satisfy  the  chemical  reactions  ;  but  it  is  ordinarily 
advisable  to  add  as  much  lime  as  there  is  Paris  green,  in  order  to 
increase  the  adhesive  properties.  Paris  green  mixes  better  with 
water  if  it  is  made  into  a  paste  (by  stirring  it  in  a  little  water) 
before  it  is  thrown  into  the  barrel.  If  it  is  put  into  the  barrel 
dry,  much  of  it  floats  and  does  not  readily  incorporate  itself  with 
the  water.  For  potato  bugs,  it  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  sprinkle 
the  Paris -green  water  on  the  plants  ;  but  the  best  results  are  to 
be  secured  only  when  it  is  applied  with  a  pump  and  fine  nozzle, 
so  that  the  liquid  is  broken  and  driven  to  all  parts  of  the  plant. 

It  is  now  customary  to  use  Paris  green  in  the  Bordeaux 
mixture,  and  thereby  to  combat  both  insects  and  fungi  at  one 
spraying.  The  Paris  green  is  added  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture  as 
if  the  Bordeaux  were  so  much  water.  That  is,  if  one  desires  to 
use  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  200  gallons,  he  adds 
his  pound  of  poison  to  200  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  In  this 
case,  of  course,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  add  lime  to  the  Paris 
green,  since  the  lime  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  will  answer  all 
requirements.  Paris  green  is  sometimes  added  to  Bordeaux  at 
the  rate  of  eight  ounces  to  50  gallons. 

London  purple  is  often  used  instead  of  Paris  green.  It  is 
used  in  the  same  strengths  and  may  also  be  added  to  the  Bor- 


Arsenite   of  Lime — Kerosene  209 

deaux  mixture.  It  is  generally  a  more  variable  commodity  than 
the  Paris  green  and  is  not  used  so  much  as  formerly. 

Arsenite  of  lime.  —  White  arsenic,  2  Ibs. ;  carbonate  of  soda 
(sal  soda,  washing  soda),  8  Ibs.;  water,  2  gals*. 

Put  all  the  materials  into  an  iron  kettle,  which  should  not 
be  used  for  any  other  purpose,  and  boil  for  fifteen  minutes,  or 
until  the  arsenic  dissolves.  Add  water  to  replace  that  escaped 
by  evaporation,  making  two  gallons  of  the  stock  solution.  This 
may  be  prepared  at  any  time,  and  will  keep  indefinitely  if  put 
in  a  tightly  corked  bottle.  Be  sure  to  put  the  bottle  in  a  safe 
place  and  label  it  "Poison." 

To  make  fifty  gallons  of  the  spraying  mixture  but  one  pint 
of  this  stock  solution  is  needed ;  hence  the  formula  given  is  suffi- 
cient for  sixteen  barrels  (of  50  gals.  each).  Two  to  four  pounds  of 
stone  lime  are  slaked  and  added  to  each  barrel.  If  the  arsenite 
of  lime  is  used  in  Bordeaux,  like  Paris  green,  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  use  lime  in  addition  to  that  already  in  the  Bordeaux. 

Kerosene  and  soap  emulsion. — For  insects  which  suck  their 
food,  as  scales,  plant-lice,  and  the  true  bugs  (like  the  squash- 
bug),  the  kerosene  compounds  are  the  most  popular  insecticides. 
Kerosene  and  soap  emulsion  is  the  standard.  There  are  several 
ways  of  making  this,  but  the  following  is  one  of  the  best:  Into 
boiling  soft  water  (one  gallon),  place  one-half  pound  of  hard  soap; 
when  the  soap  is  dissolved,  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene  (or  coal- 
oil).  In  order  to  thoroughly  emulsify  the  ingredients,  run  them 
through  a  pump  vigorously  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  the  material  should  be  so  thoroughly  emulsified 
that  the  liquid  has  a  milk-like  constituency.  This  material  may 
then  be  diluted  with  water  ten  to  fifteen  times  when  using.  If 
the  emulsion  is  to  be  used  on  dormant  trees  in  the  winter  it  is 
not  necessary  to  dilute  it  so  much.  The  kerosene  emulsion  is 
sure  death  to  all  plant-lice  and  to  scale  insects  when  they  are  in 
their  young  or  feeding  stage.  When  treating  plant-lice,  how- 
ever, it  is  very  essential  that  the  application  be  made  before  the 
leaves  have  curled  up  and  afforded  them  protection. 

Kerosene  and  water  emulsion. —  A  mechanical  emulsion  of 
kerosene  and  water  is  a  very  efficient  insecticide,  and  has  been 


210        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

known  to  be  so  for  many  years.  It  has  not  come  into  general 
use,  however,  because  there  has  not  been  any  device  which  would 
thoroughly  and  accurately  emulsify  them.  Within  the  last  two 
or  three  years,  however,  pumps  have  been  invented  which  mix 
and  emulsify  the  kerosene  and  water  in  different  proportions. 
Some  of  these  pumps  are  now  sufficiently  perfected  to  be  recom- 
mended with  confidence.  It  is  probable  that  within  the  next 
few  years  these  machines  will  be  still  further  perfected,  and  the 
kerosene  and  soap  emulsion  will  then  pass  away.  The  kerosene 
and  water  emulsion  is  cleaner,  much  more  easily  applied,  and  more 
easy  to  make  than  the  kerosene  and  soap  emulsion.  It  has  been 
found  that  when  the  water  and  oil  are  thoroughly  emulsified  the 
foliage  will  endure  without  injury  an  emulsion  which  contains 
one -fourth  or  one -fifth  of  kerosene;  and  this  strength  is  fatal 
even  to  the  San  Jos6  scale.  It  is  always  best,  however,  when 
applying  the  kerosene  and  water  emulsions,  to  make  the  appli- 
cation on  a  sunny  day,  so  that  the  kerosene  quickly  evaporates. 
Some  plants  are  not  injured  by  pure  kerosene  applied  when 
the  sun  is  shining.  Recent  experiments  and  practice  have 
shown  that  an  emulsion  of  waller  and  crude  petroleum  makes 
a  very  efficient  insecticide  ;  but  the  grades  of  crude  petro- 
leum vary  so  much  that  it  seems  to  be  difficult  to  give  gen- 
eral advice.  The  grower  should  secure  the  latest  bulletins  on 
the  subject,  as  it  is  expected  that  considerable  progress  will  be 
made  in  this  direction  within  the  next  few  years. 

Whale-oil  soap. — An  old-time  remedy  for  scale  insects  and 
plant-lice  is  whale-oil  soap.  This  is  a  very  disagreeable  com- 
pound to  dissolve  and  handle,  however,  and  it  is  gradually  giving 
way  to  the  kerosene  emulsion,  although  it  is  a  very  efficient 
insecticide.  It  is  customary  to  dissolve  one  pound  of  whale-oil 
soap  in  four  or  five  gallons  of  water.  One  should  experiment  on 
a  few  plants,  if  he  is  using  a  denser  strength,  before  he  applies 
it  on  very  large  areas.  Some  tender  plants  are  injured  by  the 
formula  given  above. 

Tobacco  dust  is  a  standard  insecticide  and  repellent  for  some 
insects.  The  striped  cucumber  and  melon  beetle  is  usually 
driven  away  if  the  plants  are  thoroughly  dusted  with  tobacco 


Hellebore — Bordeaux  Mixture  211 

dust.  The  flea-beetle,  which  is  an  invidious  enemy  to  many 
crops,  may  also  be  repelled  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  same 
treatment.  These  insects  are  also  driven  away  to  a  great  extent 
when  the  plants  are  thoroughly  covered  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

White  hellebore  is  poisonous  to  insect  life,  but  is  much  less 
injurious  to  human  beings  than  the  arsenic  compounds.  It  is  some- 
times used  on  cabbages  and  other  plants  late  in  the  season,  when 
it  is  considered  to  be  unsafe  to  use  Paris  green  or  other  arsenites. 
It  may  be  applied  either  dry  or  in  water.  When  applied  in  a 
water  spray,  one  ounce  of  poison  is  mixed  with  three  gallons  of 
water.  In  the  dry  state  it  may  be  applied  full  strength  or  diluted 
half  with  flour. 

Fungicides 

Bordeaux  mixture. —  To  make  1  bbl.  (50  gals.):  Copper  sul- 
fate  (blue  vitriol),  4  Ibs. ;  stone  lime,  4  Ibs. 

If  there  is  any  hurry,  the  vitriol  may  be  quickly  dissolved  in 
a  pail  of  hot  water,  but  it  is  usually  better  to  put  it  in  a  piece 
of  burlap  and  suspend  this  over  night  in  four  to  six  gallons  of 
cold  water.  If  only  the  bottom  of  the  burlap  rests  in  the  water, 
the  vitriol  will  dissolve  quicker  than  if  it  is  completely  immersed. 
Always  use  a  wooden  pail  for  dissolving  vitriol;  it  will  corrode  tin. 

It  is  better,  but  not  essential,  to  slake  the  lime  some  time 
before  it  is  needed  for  making  Bordeaux,  in  order  that  it  may 
become  cool.  If  warm  milk  of  lime  is  used  for  making  Bordeaux 
there  is  likely  to  be  more  trouble  with  clogging  of  the  nozzles. 
Only  good  stone  lime  should  be  used  ;  even  a  little  air-slaked  lime 
in  Bordeaux  is  likely  to  give  a  mixture  which  will  burn  the  foli- 
age, clog  the  nozzles,  and  wash  from  the  trees  more  easily.  When 
slaking  a  small  amount  of  lime  do  not  cover  it  with  water  but 
add  water  gradually,  pint  by  pint,  as  fast  as  the  lime  takes  it 
up.  If  lime  is  "drowned"  it  will  often  take  half  an  hour  to  slake, 
when  it  would  take  but  five  minutes  if  skilfully  handled.  If  an 
ordinary  oil  barrel  is  sawed  in  two  the  halves  make  very  handy 
tubs  in  which  to  slake  lime  and  dissolve  vitriol. 

When  ready  to  begin  spraying,  pour  the  vitriol  solution  into 
the  spray  barrel  and  then  fill  the  latter  about  half  full  of  water. 


212         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

If  not  done  after  slaking,  the  lime  should  now  be  diluted  to 
make  ten  to  fifteen  gallons  of  "milk  of  lime."  This  is  poured 
into  the  spray  barrel  and  unites  with  the  vitriol  solution  to  make 
Bordeaux.  It  should  preferably  be  poured  into  the  barrel  through 
a  screen  of  some  sort  to  take  out  the  unslaked  lumps,  which 
would  clog  the  nozzle.  A  piece  of  wire  fly  screen  or  a  double 
thickness  of  coarse  potato  burlap  is  excellent.  Fertilizer  sacking 
is  too  fine  meshed  for  this  purpose.  It  is  not  wise  to  mix  the 
vitriol  solution  and  the  milk  of  lime  when  less  dilute  than  this; 
otherwise  the  Bordeaux  is  more  likely  to  burn  the  foliage  and 
is  lumpy.  Fill  the  barrel  with  water  to  make  fifty  gallons,  and 
stir  the  mixture  thoroughly  for  a  few  minutes.  If  there  is  no 
automatic  agitator  attached  to  the  pump,  the  mixture  should  be 
thoroughly  stirred  with  a  paddle  while  spraying  at  least  every 
five  minutes. 

Bordeaux  itself  should  always  be  made  fresh  for  each  spray- 
ing, as  it  deteriorates  on  standing;  but  the  vitriol  solution  and 
slaked  lime  may  be  kept  on  hand  ready  for  mixing.  When 
much  spraying  is  to  be  done  it  generally  saves  time  to  make  a 
stock  solution  of  the  vitriol  and  slake  a  quantity  of  lime  before 
hand.  Thus  forty  pounds  of  vitriol  may  be  dissolved  in  forty 
gallons  of  water.  Each  gallon  will  then  contain  one  pound  of 
vitriol,  and  four  gallons  will  be  needed  to  make  fifty  gallons 
of  Bordeaux.  The  stock  solution  of  vitriol  must  be  kept  tightly 
covered  to  prevent  evaporation.  A  good  plan  is  to  sink  the 
barrel  containing  it  in  the  ground. 

Likewise  forty  pounds  of  lime  may  be  slaked  in  forty 
gallons  of  water  and  used  like  the  vitriol;  or  it  may  be  slaked 
to  the  consistency  of  putty,  spread  evenly  over  the  bottom  of  a 
narrow  trough,  and  covered  with  water  to  exclude  air.  Knowing 
the  number  of  pounds  of  lime  in  the  trough,  a  certain  fraction 
of  its  area  will  contain  the  four  pounds  needed  for  a  barrel,  and 
this  is  separated  off  at  one  end  when  needed. 

Instead  of  measuring  the  lime  it  is  often  more  convenient 
to  use  the  ferro-cyanide  test  when  large  amounts  are  slaked 
beforehand.  An  ounce  of  potassium  ferro-cyanide  may  be 
bought  in  any  drug  store,  and  will  be  sufficient  for  a  season. 


Bordeaux   Mixture — Copper    Carbonate          213 

Dissolve  it  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  label  the  bottle  "Poison." 
The  needed  amount  of  lime  for  making  Bordeaux  is  then  esti- 
mated, instead  of  calculated,  when  taken  from  the  stock,  and 
enough  is  added  to  satisfy  the  ferro- cyanide  test.  This  test  is 
made  by  taking  out  a  little  of  the  Bordeaux  in  a  small  dish  and 
adding  to  it  a  drop  of  the  ferro -cyanide  solution.  If  a  reddish 
brown  color  appears  more  lime  is  needed,  and  it  should  be  added 
until  no  change  in  color  takes  place.  It  is  even  wise  to  use 
more  lime  than  is  needed  to  satisfy  the  test.  An  excess  of  lime 
is  not  injurious  and  probably  is  beneficial. 

Carbonate  of  copper. — A  good  fungicide  can  be  made  by  dis- 
solving copper  and  ammonia  and  then  diluting  the  solution  with 
water.  This  material  has  the  great  advantage  over  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture of  not  discoloring  the  foliage  or  fruit.  It  is  therefore  a 
useful  fungicide  when  it  is  needed  to  apply  late  in  the  season 
when  the  fruit  is  nearly  grown,  or  when  it  is  desired  to  spray 
plants  that  are  used  for  ornamental  effects.  The  material  does 
not  adhere  to  the  foliage  as  long  as  Bordeaux  mixture,  however, 
and  for  that  reason  it  does  not  retain  its  efficiency  and  is  not  so 
much  used.  The  standard  fungicide  is  Bordeaux  mixture;  the 
incidental  one  is  carbonate  of  copper. 

The  carbonate  of  copper  may  be  dissolved  at  the  rate  of 
an  ounce  in  one  pint  to  one  quart  of  ammonia.  The  amount 
of  ammonia  required  will  depend  upon  its  strength.  It  is  well 
to  use  only  enough  ammonia  to  dissolve  the  copper,  for  the  free 
ammonia  is  likely  to  injure  foliage.  If  the  very  strong  ammonia 
can  be  secured  (that  which  is  known  as  26°  Beaume"),  the  solu- 
tion should  be  diluted  with  seven  or  eight  times  its  volume  of 
water.  This  stock  solution  may  be  kept  indefinitely  in  a  tightly 
corked  bottle.  When  wanted  for  use,  it  should  be  diluted  with 
water  at  the  rate  of  one  ounec  of  carbonate  of  copper  to  eight  to 
twenty  gallons  of  water.  This  makes  a  clear,  bluish  liquid,  which 
is  as  easily  applied  as  the  water  itself.  The  addition  of  lime  to 
make  the  material  adhere  has  not  been  very  successful.  The 
carbonate  of  copper  may  be  made  at  home  by  treating  sulfate 
of  copper  with  sal  soda  ;  but  unless  one  wants  it  in  large  quant- 
ity, it  is  better  to  buy. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MARKETING  AND   STORING- 

FULLY  half  the  profits  in  vegetable -gardening  de- 
pend on  the  marketing.  Where  there  are  ten  men  who 
can  grow  a  product  to  advantage  there  may  be  only  one 
who  can  sell  it  to  advantage.  Horticulturists  have  not 
yet  learned  the  art  of  advertising.  They  are  afraid  to 
spend  money  for  natty  packages,  attractive  labels,  and 
advertisements  in  local  papers.  The  bases  of  all  good 
marketing  are  five  :  (1)  a  good  and  seasonable  prod- 
uct; (2)  uniform  grades  in  the  marketed  product;  (3) 
good  packing;  (4)  attractive  packages;  (5)  honesty  on 
the  part  of  both  grower  and  seller.  Given  these  qualifi- 
cations, the  gardener  need  not  hesitate  to  push  his  prod- 
uct and  to  ask  the  buyer  to  pay  him  an  extra  price. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  local  market  is  the 
most  to  be  desired.  The  grower  is  known,  and  he  has 
an  opportunity  to  establish  a  reputation.  He  can  hold 
his  customers  year  by  year.  All  the  business  may  be 
within  his  own  observation.  He  knows  what  is  being 
done  with  his  products.  There  is  a  brisk  demand  for 
good  vegetables  and  fruits  at  good  prices.  In  any 
city  of  10,000  and  upwards  a  special  trade  can  be 
established,  particularly  if  the  city  is  mature.  This  is 
often  denied,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true.  If  the  grower 
sells  his  products  in  attractive  packages,  with  neat 

(214) 


Packing    Vegetables  215 

labels  if  need  be,  and  properly  sorted  and  arranged, 
and  places  them  in  the  hands  of  an  enterprising  grocer 
who  caters  to  the  best  trade,  he  will  not  need  to 
peddle  his  wares.  The  grower  for  the  home  market 
must  be  sure  to  have  his  vegetables  in  season ;  and  he 
will  do  well,  also,  to  provide  a  continuous  and  varied 
supply,  for  thereby  he  can  hold  his  customers.  He 
must  set  a  standard  and  live  up  to  it.  These  re- 
marks may  not  apply  to  those  who  grow  things  on 
a  large  scale,  but  such  persons  usually  find  special 
means  and  outlets  for  disposing  of  their  products : 
because  they  have  found  such  outlets  is  the  reason  for 
the  growth  of  their  business. 

1.  PACKING 

Conditions  have  changed  within  a  generation.  This 
is  the  day  of  small  and  special  packages.  Every  pair 
of  shoes  is  in  a  special  box.  Formerly  prices  for 
vegetables  were  high,  and  the  gardens  were  near  the 
markets.  Now  the  prices  are  low,  and  gardens  are 
often  a  thousand  miles  from  the  consumer.  Then, 
barrels  and  miscellaneous  boxes  could  be  used ;  now 
attractive  packages  are  often  necessary  to  advertise  the 
products,  and  strong  ones  are  essential  in  order  to 
provide  safe  transportation.  The  following  extracts 
from  Alfred.  Henderson*  indicate  how  times  have 
changed : 

"For  thirty  years  prior  to   1875  market -gardening 


*Chapter  on  horticulture  in  DepewV'One  Hundred  Years  of  American  Com- 
merce," 1895. 


The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

was  a  most  profitable  business  in  and  around  New 
York.  Thirty  years  ago  the  New  Jersey  market- 
gardeners,  mainly  located  in  Hudson  county,  grew  bet- 
ter vegetables  than  the  Long  Island  men,  but  their 
limited  area  of  land  becoming  less  and  less  annually, 
in  consequence  of  the  inroads  made  for  building  pur- 
poses, the  Long  Islanders  forged  ahead.  The  Long 
Island  men,  however,  have  not  had  it  all  their  own 
way,  for  of  late  years  a  formidable  competitor  has 
been  met  by  them  in  the  large  truck -gardens  of  the 
South.  While  this  competitive  factor  has  certainly 
lessened  their  profits,  even  at  the  lower  prices  that  pre- 
vail to-day  there  is  still  a  fair  profit  in  the  business 
for  them,  certainly  more  than  in  ordinary  farm  crops." 
Such  changes  in  conditions  are  reasons  enough  for  a 
change  in  business  methods  of  disposing  of  the  crop. 
Packing  and  sorting  of  a  crop  should  begin  in  the 
field.  The  better  the  crop  is  grown,  the  fewer  will  be 
the  culls  and  the  less  the  labor  of  sorting  and  grad- 
ing. In  crops  which  are  not  to  be  carefully  sorted  into 
sizes  and  packed  by  hand,  as  potatoes  and  many  of  the 
root  crops,  the  vegetables  may  be  placed  directly  in 
the  package  in  which  the  product  is  to  be  taken  to  the 
market.  Nothing  is  better  for  the  handling  of  heavy 
products  than  a  bushel  box  (Fig.  49).  Formerly  bas- 
kets of  various  sizes  were  used  for  this  purpose,  but 
the  bushel  box  is  much  better  because  it  is  cheaper, 
more  durable  and  it  stows  better  on  the  wagon  or  in  the 
storehouse.  One  tier  of  boxes  may  be  piled  on  another, 
but  this  is  impossible  with  baskets  unless  one  resorts  to 
expensive  staging. 


The   Bushel   Box  217 

The  value  of  the  bushel  box  as  a  receptacle  for  the 
handling  of  vegetables  is  well  set  forth  by  Professor 
Green*  as  follows:  "In  these  days  of  close  competition 
it  is  very  important  for  the  seller  to  use  great  care  in 
the  selection  of  a  favorable  package  in  which  to  display 
his  goods.  In  the  markets  of  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis 
the  most  common  package  for  the  display  of  vegetables 
is  the  bushel  basket,  and  this 
is  probably  one  of  the  poorest 
kinds  in  which  to  show  off  goods 
to  advantage.  Far  better  and 
more  economical  for  the  same 
purpose  is  the  bushel  box.  The 
disadvantages  of  the  bushel  bas- 
ket may  be  briefly  summed  up  Fig-49-  Bllsnelbox- 

.          '  This  is  the  style  used  exten- 

aS    follows  :      (1)    A  Wagon   load  sively  in  the    Boston  markets. 

/.    «    11     v       i      .       '             .               1  Its  standard  value  is  10  cents. 

OI    lull     baSKetS    IS   not   nearly  SO  it  is    16    inches    square,   and  8 

solid  nor  so  easily  built  up  as  inchesdeei>- 
a  load  of  the  same  material  in  boxes;  (2)  a  bushel 
basket  costs  about  50  per  cent  more  than  a  well- 
made  box  holding  the  same  amount;  (3)  it  seldom  lasts 
more  than  one -third  as  long;  (4)  the  goods  do  not  ap- 
pear to  such  advantage  in  it  as  in  a  box.  On  the 
other  hand,  bushel  boxes  (1)  may  be  made  so  as  to  fit 
readily  into  a  wagon,  and  by  the  use  of  deck  boards  a 
very  large  and  solid  load  may  readily  be  put  on  that 
binds  well  together;  (2)  a  box  lasts  indefinitely  and  is 
easily  repaired,  while  a  basket  is  of  short  duration  and 
is  not  easily  repaired;  (3)  a  box  capable  of  holding  a 
bushel  can  be  made  much  cheaper  than  a  basket  of 

"The  Market  Garden,  November,  1894,  p.  3. 


218         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

the  same  size;  (4)  the  box  is  far  better  for  showing  off 
goods.  Perhaps  the  most  desirable  form  for  a  bushel 
box  for  general  use  is  sixteen  inches  square  and  eight 
inches  deep,  inside  dimensions.  The  end  pieces  should 
be  one  inch  thick,  with  a  handle  hole  in  each  end.  The 
sides  and  bottom  should  be  one-half  inch  thick.  This  is 
the  style  of  box  commonly  used  in  the  markets  of  Bos- 
ton and  vicinity.  Such  a  box  is  there  sold  for  about 
ten  cents.  A  wagon  for  carrying  such  boxes  to  best 
advantage  should  be  wide  enough  to  allow  of  placing  in 
the  body  of  it  two  rows  of  boxes  abreast  and  two  deep. 
In  building  a  load  of  boxes,  when  ventilation  is  needed 
for  those  in  the  lower  tier,  a  short  piece  of  wood,  one- 
half  an  inch  thick,  may  be  laid  across  the  upper  corners 
of  the  corner  boxes  so  that  the  second  tier  will  rest 
upon  them.  The  deck  boards  may  carry  several  tiers  of 
boxes,  which  will  bind  well  together  and  make  a  solid 
load." 

In  handling  the  products  in  the  field  and  in  the  store- 
house, it  is  important  that  they  be  kept  dry  and  cool. 
Over-ripeness  and  decay  are  then  prevented.  They  should 
be  put  on  the  market  or  in  storage  quickly,  before  they 
have  been  subjected  to  unfavorable  conditions  of  weather 
or  to  accidents.  Some  vegetables,  as  onions,  are  not 
injured  by  being  left  in  the  sun  for  a  few  hours  or 
even  days;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  better  to  keep  the 
vegetables  in  partial  shade,  particularly  such  as  remain 
green  or  soft  in  their  marketable  stage.  If  one  has  any 
quantity  of  vegetables  to  handle,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
packing-house  or  shed.  In  this  shed  there  should  be 
tables  or  counters  on  which  the  sorting  or  grading  can 


Principles   of  Packing  219 

be  done.  If  possible,  this  house  should  have  a  pit  or 
cellar  at  one  end  in  which  vegetables  can  be  kept  tem- 
porarily or  even  stored  for  the  winter. 

In  the  packing  of  vegetables,  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  the  following  essentials:  (1)  Pack  snug.  This 
is  particularly  important  if  the  vegetables  are  to  be 
shipped  any  considerable  distance.  A  large  part  of 
the  vegetables  in  our  city  markets  is  handled  from 
ten  to  fifteen  times  from  the  field  to  the  consumer. 
Vegetables  that  are  packed  snug  not  only  bear  trans- 
portation better,  but  they  keep  longer  and  present  a 
more  attractive  appearance.  In  the  better  kinds  of 
vegetables  this  snug  packing  is  secured  by  placing 
each  specimen  by  hand.  (2)  Pack  in  grades.  This 
contributes  not  only  to  the  appearance  of  the  vege- 
table, but  also  to  the  snugness  of  packing.  Vegeta- 
bles like  melons,  tomatoes  and  others  that  are  used 
as  table  delicacies  and  accessories,  are  usually  sold  by 
the  smallest  specimens  in  the  package  rather  than  by 
the  large  ones.  If  the  specimens  are  sorted  into  two 
grades,  the  smaller  ones  will  usually  sell  as  well  as  the 
mixed  lot,  and  the  larger  ones  will  sell  much  better. 
Since  the  grading  of  vegetables  is  a  matter  of  mental 
ideals,  the  grade  varies  with  every  packer,  and  it  is 
therefore  often  difficult  to  secure  sufficient  uniformity 
to  enable  one  to  sell  his  products  under  a  trade -mark. 
However,  if  one  has  uniform  packages  and  gives  close 
attention  to  the  details  of  the  business,  he  should 
be  able  to  establish  a  series  of  grades  that  will  be 
associated  with  his  name  in  the  market.  (3)  In  the 
finer  or  dessert  vegetables  it  is  well  to  pack  in  some 


220         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

distinctive  package  or  to  use  a  trade-mark  or  label  which 
will  distinguish  one's  products  from  others.  This  is 
essential  if  one  is  to  establish  an  individual  reputa- 
tion and  to  hold  customers  from  year  to  year.  With 
such  heavy  and  staple  products  as  potatoes,  beets,  or 
cabbages,  it  is  usually  inadvisable  to  attempt  this  kind 
of  marketing;  but  even  with  them  it  can  sometimes 
be  done.  It  is  common  to  associate  a  special  package 
with  fruits,  but  not  with  vegetables;  but  this  condition 
of  affairs  is  wrong.  (4)  Pack  the  vegetables  cool.  They 
should  go  into  the  packages  with  a  low  temperature, 
rather  than  warm.  They  keep  longer  and  hold  their 
quality  better  under  such  conditions.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  dessert  and  perishable  products.  (5) 
Pack  in  relatively  small  packages,  with  all  the  better 
kinds  of  vegetables.  Aim,  so  far  as  possible,  at  special 
and  dessert  trade.  The  warmer  the  season,  the  smaller 
the  quantity  should  be.  If  one  is  shipping  green  stuff,, 
as  cabbage,  spinach  and  kale,  the  package  should  be 
well  ventilated  in  order  to  prevent  heating,  particularly 
if  the  packages  are  as  large  as  barrels.  It  is  well 
to  use  open  or  ventilated  packages  for  all  green  vege- 
tables in  warm  weather,  at  least  for  those  that  are  to 
be  shipped  a  long  distance. 

Of  all  the  packages  in  use  at  the  present  time, 
barrels  are  least  desirable  except  for  a  staple  product 
that  is  shipped  a  long  distance  and  thrown  on  the 
general  market.  A  barrel  does  not  appeal  to  the  indi- 
vidual consumer.  Barrels  also  are  relatively  expen- 
sive. For  the  finer  kinds  of  vegetables,  new  or  gift 
packages  may  be  used,  particularly  if  one  is  aiming 


Kinds   of  Packages 


221 


at  the  special  trade.  This  is  emphatically  true  with 
those  vegetables  that  need  careful  handling  in  order 
to  deliver  them  in  good  condition  to  the  consumer. 
Among  such  vegetables  are  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  egg- 


1 


Fig.  50.    Some  of  the  packages  in  which  long-distance  shipments 
of  vegetables  are  made. 

plants  and  muskmelons.    Common  commercial  styles  of 
packages  for  vegetables  are  shown  in  Fig.  50. 

The  shipper  should    mark  the  packages  with   his 
name,  and,  in  case  the  goods  are  sorted,  with  the  trade- 


222         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

mark  or  the  name  of  the  product.  The  dealer  is  likely  to 
receive  consignments  from  many  persons  in  one  day, 
and  unless  the  name  of  the  shipper  is  on  the  package 


Fig.  51.    A  cylinder-sorter  for  potatoes  and  fruits. 


confusion  may  result.  When  an  important  shipment 
is  made,  it  is  well  to  notify  the  dealer  in  advance,  either 
by  wire  or  by  letter. 

Although  the  sorting  and  grading  of  vegetables  en- 
tail extra  labor  and  expense,  they  nearly  always  pay  if 
one  desires  to  reach  a  personal  customer.  With  certain 
kinds  of  vegetables,  however,  sorting  machines  may  be 
used,  particularly  with  potatoes.  Some  of  these  ma- 
chines work  on  the  principle  of  a  revolving  sieve  or 
screen  through  which  the  crop  is  run  (Fig.  51).  The 
products  then  drop  through  the  mesh  according  to  size. 
Another  type  of  sorting  machine  is  an  inclined  box  or 
rack  with  slat  bottom  over  which  the  products  are  rolled 
(Fig.  52).  The  small  specimens  drop  between  the 
slats,  and  the  large  ones  roll  on  to  the  end  of  the  box 
and  are  caught  in  a  barrel  or  other  receptacle.  Com- 
pare Figs.  82  and  83. 

Usually  the  careful  gardener  will  need  a  special  kind 
of  wagon.  For  use  in  the  field  he  needs  something  in 


Market -Garden    Wagons  223 

the  nature  of  a  truck  with  wide  tires,  and  small  wheels 
that  will  turn  under  the  platform.  On  these  platform 
wagons  the  boxes  may  be  stored  in  two  or  three  tiers  if 


Fig.  52.    A  slat-sorter  for  potatoes  and  fruits. 

necessary.  In  nearly  every  great  trucking  center  there 
is  a  special  kind  of  market  wagon.  One  of  the  most 
distinct  of  these  is  the  kind  used  on  the  western  end 
of  Long  Island,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  53.  On 
the  macadam  roads  of  that  section  these  wagons  are 
often  hauled  twenty  and  thirty  miles  to  the  market. 
The  teams  are  started  in  the  evening  or  night  and  ar- 
rive in  the  New  York  City  market  by  about  two  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  ready  for  the  opening  of  the  market 
at  daybreak  (Fig.  54).  One  of  these  wagons  weighs 
about  eighteen  hundred  pounds.  It  is  provided  with  a 
large  canvas  cover,  which  can  be  tied  over  the  load. 
The  wagon,  with  cover,  and  top  to  shield  the  driver, 
all  complete,  costs  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 
One  of  these  rigs  can  carry  three  tons  of  produce.  In 
some  parts  of  Long  Island  these  wagons  are  loaded  on 
flat  cars  at  the  railway  stations  and  are  taken  into  the 
markets  by  that  means. 

In  order  to  do  the  best  with  one's  products,  the 
grower  must  keep  track  of  the  market.     If  possible,  he 


224        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

should  visit  the  market.  He  should  consult  the  trade 
papers.  He  should  ask  his  dealer  about  the  new  ideas 
in  packages  and  packing.  Ordinarily  he  will  be  able  to 
secure  better  information  if  he  deals  continuously  with 
one  reliable  firm.  In  every  way  endeavor  to  keep  up 
with  the  times  in  the  selling  of  the  produce  as  well  as 
in  the  growing  of  it. 


2.   STORING 

It  is  impossible  to  enunciate  principles  that  will 
apply  to  storing  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  for  these 
products  include  fruits,  roots  and  leaves.  Some  of 
them  must  be  kept  warm  and  some  cool.  Others,  as 
onions  and  squashes,  must  be  dry ;  still  others,  as  cab- 
bages and  roots, 
must  be  kept  moist. 
Each  vegetable, 
therefore,  is  a  law 
unto  itself.  With 
the  exception  of 
root  and  tuber 
crops,  most  vegeta- 
bles are  uncertain 
in  storage  unless 
they  are  kept  in  an 
establishment  that 
is  cooled  by  artificial  means,  and  which,  therefore,  main- 
tains uniformity  of  moisture  and  temperature.  In  gen- 
eral, it  is  better  to  sell  in  the  fall,  even  at  a  somewhat 
reduced  price,  than  to  go  to  the  expense  and  risk 


Fig.  53.    Long  Island  market  wagon. 
The  canvas  cover  is  rolled  on  the  pole  at  the  rear. 


Storing 


225 


of  storing.  When,  however,  the  fall  market  is  so  low 
as  to  prevent  any  profit,  storing  is  a  necessary  re- 
course. Persons  who  have  become  expert  in  the  hand- 
ling of  any  one  vegetable  may  store  it  with  relative 
safety.  If  one  has  had  no  experience  in  the  storing 
of  those  vegetables  that  are  difficult  to  keep,  it  is 


Fig.  54.     Daylight  view  of  Wallabout  market,  Brooklyn. 
The  covered  market  is  in  the  rear,  and  the  open-air  market  in  the 
foreground.     In  the  very  front  of   the  picture  is  a  dilapidated  stone 
wall  and  a  discarded  market  wagon :  these  are  not  parts  of  the  market. 

generally  better  to  put  them  in  the  hands  of  some 
one  who  makes  a  business  of  cold  storage  and  pay 
him  for  his  labor  and  experience. 

In  general,  a  low  temperature  is  essential  to  the 
keeping  of  the  product.  It  prevents  over-ripening  and 
delays  the  work  of  fungi  and  other  disorganizing 


226         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

agents.  Usually  it  is  well  to  keep  the  temperature 
relatively  near  the  freezing  point;  but  there  are  some 
vegetables,  as  squashes  and  sweet  potatoes,  which  are 
injured  by  a  low  temperature.  Products  which  are 
either  over -ripe  or  markedly  under-ripe  usually  do  not 
keep  well.  It  is  essential  to  any  success  in  the  storing 
of  vegetables  that  the  specimens  be  perfectly  sound 
when  put  in  storage,  and  in  the  proper  state  of  ma- 
turity. No  doubt  some  of  the  loss  in  the  storing  of 
cabbages,  for  example,  is  due  to  the  infection  of  the 
plants  with  the  rot  fungus  before  the  heads  are  put 
in  storage.  Onions  that  have  been  seriously  attacked 
by  the  smut  or  rust  may  not  be  expected  to  keep  well, 
however  good  the  storage. 

The  following  essentials  apply  to  the  storing  of 
most  vegetables:  (1)  Protect  from  frost.  (2)  Keep 
them  cool  in  order  to  prevent  decay.  (3)  Keep  them 
relatively  moist  in  order  to  prevent  excessive  evapo- 
ration and  wilting.  (4)  Avoid  a  wet  and  stagnant 
atmosphere,  as  this  is  likely  to  engender  rot,  particu- 
larly when  the  temperature  is  too  high.  (5)  Protect 
from  heating,  for  heating  is  the  natural  result  of  the 
accumulation  of  much  fresh  vegetable  matter. 

For  home  use,  it  is  well  to  store  roots  and  tubers  in 
moist  sand  or  in  sphagnum  moss  (such  as  nurserymen 
and  florists  use).  Beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  pota- 
toes stored  in  this  way  will  keep  plump  and  fresh  for 
a  twelvemonth  or  more,  if  the  temperature  is  kept  low 
enough  to  prevent  sprouting.  The  reason  for  this 
good  result  is  that  the  sand  or  moss  prevents  evapora- 
tion and  maintains  uniformity  of  conditions. 


The    Outside    Cellar  227 

The  house  cellar  is  likely  to  be  one  of  the  poorest 
places  in  which  to  store  vegetables,  particularly  if  it 
contains  a  heater  for  the  residence.  In  such  case  it 
is  likely  to  be  too  warm  and  too  dry.  The  vegeta- 
bles shrivel  and  tend  to  start  into  growth,  or  to  decay 
quickly.  Cellars  that  contain  much  vegetable  matter 
are  likely  to  make  the  house  unhealthy  unless  there  is 
ample  ventilation  and  pains  is  taken  to  pick  over  the 
vegetables  from  time  to  time  and  remove  all  unsound 
specimens.  If  the  house  cellar  is  used  for  the  storing 
of  vegetables,  it  is  well  to  have  a  special  vent  or  chim- 
ney. This  may  be  a  cheap  board  affair  extending  up 
the  back  side  of  the  house  as  high  as  the  roof.  This 
flue  carries  off  the  foul  and  warm  air,  and  thereby 
keeps  the  cellar  pure  and  at  a  relatively  low  tempera- 
ture. In  some  cases  an  extra  flue  may  be  provided  in 
the  house  chimney  when  the  house  is  built,  and  the 
warmth  of  the  chimney  will  cause  a  strong  draft. 

The  old-fashioned  "outside  cellar"  usually  gives 
better  conditions  for  the  storing  of  vegetables  than  the 
house  cellar.  It  is  likely  to  be  quite  as  uniform  in 
temperature,  and  more  uniform  in  the  moisture  condi- 
tions. The  "outside  cellar,"  with  various  modifications, 
is  used  largely  by  market -gardeners  for  the  storing 
of  roots,  leek,  celery  and  other  products  that  do  not 
require  a  dry  air.  This  cellar  is  little  more  than  a 
pit  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  ground  with  a  gable  roof 
covered  with  soil  and  sod  so  that  frost  cannot  enter; 
or  if  the  ground  is  likely  to  be  moist,  the  pit  is  built 
partially  above  the  ground.  If  an  outside  cellar  is  to 
be  permanent,  the  walls  may  be  laid  of  stone  or  brick. 


228         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

If  the  masonry  wall  is  lined  with  hollow  or  "lining 
brick,"  more  uniform  conditions  will  be  secured.  It 
is  very  important  that  provision  be  made  for  ample 


Fig.  55.    Old-time  "outside  cellars"  or  pits. 

drainage,  and  also  for  ventilation  without  opening  the 
main  doors.  This  ventilation  is  usually  secured  by 
a  little  cupola  or  shaft  near  the  center  of  the  struc- 
ture or  by  windows  in  the  gables.  A  vestibule  entrance 
is  desirable  if  the  climate  is  severe.  It  is  preferable  that 
the  cellar  have  a  natural  earth  bottom,  providing  the 
drainage,  either  natural  or  artificial,  is  complete. 


Fig.  56.    A  good  outside  cellar  for  storing  green  vegetables. 

A  great  difficulty  with  a  permanent  field  or  outside 
cellar  is  the  danger  of  its  holding  so  much  moisture  and 
being  so  "close'  as  to  encourage  the  growth  of  fungi 


Duggar   on    Storage   Pits 


229 


and  thus  engender  decay.  An  investigation  by  Duggar* 
into  the  causes  of  the  rotting  of  celery  in  storage  showed 
that  the  disease  is  associated  largely  with  poor  and 
damp  houses.  His  remarks  on  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject will  apply  to  field  cellars  in  general,  and  they  are 
therefore  copied  here, 

After  describing  the  old -fashioned,  sod-covered,  post- supported 
house,  as  shown  in  Fig.  55,  Duggar  proceeds  :  "  The  greatest  diffi- 
culty with  these  houses  is  that  they  rot  down  rapidly,  and  they  may 
give  some  trouble  with  moisture.  They  are  inexpensive,  however. 
It  may  be  suggested  that 
in  constructing  root  houses 
or  storage  houses  of  any 
kind  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples involved  relative  to 
the  purpose  of  the  struc- 
ture should  be  constantly 
considered.  To  continue 
its  vitality,  succulence  and 
crispness,  celery  must  con- 
tinue in  the  storage  house 
a  very  slow  growth  —  a 
growth  sufficient  to  establish  the  roots  in  the  soil  and  to  complete 
the  development  of  the  inner  leaves.  Thorough  freezing  is  fatal, 
but  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  freezing  will  not  take  place  is 
most  desirable.  Not  only  does  this  temperature  hold  the  plant  in 
the  desired  condition  of  greatly  suspended  activities,  but  it  renders 
next  to  impossible  the  growth  of  injurious  fungi,  which  would 
speedily  wilt  and  rot  it.  In  order,  then,  to  approach  the  tempera- 
ture sought,  the  house  should  be  so  snugly  constructed  as  to  pro- 
vide against  freezing.  Again,  it  should  be  so  provided  with  ven- 
tilating appliances  that  at  any  time  advantage  might  be  taken  of 
any  cold  intervals  to  rapidly  and  effectually  chill  the  house,  after 
which  it  might  be  securely  closed  for  a  warmer  period ;  and  with 


Fig.  57.    Interior  of  a  model  storage  pit. 


'Bull.  132,  Cornell Exp.  St». 


230         The   Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 


this  enclosed  lower  temperature  remain  for  a  time  at  a  point  more 
nearly  that  desired. 

"In  Figs.  56  and  57  is  shown  one  of  the  most  improved  root 
houses  which  I  have  seen  in  operation,  and  the  photograph  here 


Fig.  58. 

Details  of  construction  of 
a  good  storage  house. 


reproduced  was  taken  on  the  premises  of  Abra- 
ham Franke,  Irondequoit,  N.  Y.  With  the  usual 
excavation  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet,  this 
structure  has  a  brick  foundation,  and  the  roof  is 
well  provided  with  air-chambers  and  paper  linings,  affording  the 
best  protection  against  cold.  The  additional  large  air-chamber 
above  the  collar-beams,  with  its  separate  windows,  seems  also 
desirable.  There  are  large  double  doors  at  each  end,  and  the 


A    Good   Storage    Cellar 


231 


space  between  each  outer  and  inner  door  is  large,  and  the  connec- 
tions well  arranged  for  the  exclusion  of  cold  air.  It  will  be 
seen  that  Fig.  58  shows  the  construction  of  the  peak  and  collar- 
beam  (fc)  of  the  house,  and  also  of  the  ventilator  (I,  I).  Fig. 
59  shows  the  detail  of  the  roof  construction.  The  plate  (h)  is 
held  firmly  to  the  wall  by  a  tongue  (?)  let  into  the  brickwork. 
The  rafter  is  &.  On  this  is  a  thickness  of  sheathing  upon  either 
side  (a,  c),  with  an  air-space  at  e,  and  outer  sheathing  at  g,  and 


Fig.  59. 

Details  of  a  storage 
house. 


building  paper  at  d  and  /.  The  cost  of  labor  and  materials  is 
about  $500.  An  interior  view  of  this  house  is  shown  in  Fig.  57. 
It  was  stocked  with  celery  at  the  time  this  picture  was  made, 
and  in  spite  of  having  been  harvested  early,  the  plants  were  far- 
ing well. 

"I  have  seen  a  cheaper  and  modified  form  of  the  above  struc- 
ture, provided  with  a  single  air-chamber  outside  of  the  rafters  and 
first  boarding,  with  tarred  paper  covering  the  final  layer  of  boards. 
The  odor  of  tar  in  the  house  has  caused  comment;  but  if  the 


232         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

house  is  well  aired  and  sunned  before  celery  is  admitted,  there 
seems  to  be  no  need  to  fear  even  local  censure. 

tt  The  improved  form  of  storage  house  which  has  been  described 
above  may  be  suggestive  to  market -gardeners  who  have  other 
vegetable  products  to  store  for  the  winter  markets,  for  in  the  stor- 
age of  almost  any  vegetable  product  the  same  three  essential 
features  are  to  be  borne  in  mind,  viz:  (1)  protection  against 
freezing ;  (2 )  a  temperature  so  low  that  the  activities  of  the  plant 
may  not  be  incited  and  that  the  growth  of  fungi  may  be  discour- 
aged; and  (3)  proper  protection  against  excessive  moisture." 

Usually  the  vegetable  cellar  or  pit  is  a  temporary  struc- 
ture. A  style  that  is  much  used  in  parts  of  the  northern 
states  may  be  described  as  follows:  On  warm  and  well- 
drained  soil  (preferably  sand  or  gravel)  an  excavation 
is  made  from  one  to  two  feet  deep,  usually  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  feet  wide,  and  of  the  length  required  in  order 
to  hold  the  crop  that  one  has  to  store.  The  sides  of  the 
excavation  are  held  by  one  or  two  planks  placed  on  edge 
and  secured  by  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  The  whole 
pit  is  then  covered  with  a  gable  roof  made  by  laying 
boards  from  the  margin  to  the  ridge-pole.  The  ridge- 
pole stands  three  to  five  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  pit 
and  is  held  on  stakes  that  are  driven  through  the  center 
of  the  pit  lengthwise.  Usually  it  is  necessary  to  support 
the  boards  between  the  margin  of  the  pit  and  the  ridge, 
and  this  is  done  by  another  run  or  plate  held  on  stakes 
driven  midway  between  the  side  and  the  ridge.  Boards 
about  twelve  feet  long  are  now  laid  from  the  ground  to 
the  ridge-pole,  making  a  continuous  roof.  Ordinarily 
these  boards  are  lapped,  and  the  upper  run  is  nailed 
lightly  in  order  to  hold  the  roof  in  place.  The  boards 
are  not  nailed  very  securely,  however,  for  it  may  be  nee- 


Temporary    Pits  233 

essary  to  use  the  boards  the  following  year,  and  the 
subsequent  covering  will  hold  them  in  place.  At  inter- 
vals of  ten  or  twelve  feet  two  or  three  boards  are  left 
without  nailing  to  allow  of  an  entrance,  and  the  place 
is  marked  by  a  stake  driven  into  the  ground.  These 
pits  are  made  late  in  the  fall,  and  until  severe  freezing 
weather  comes  the  protection  of  boards  is  sufficient ; 
but  as  winter  approaches,  straw,  grass  or  other  litter  is 
thrown  over  the  roof,  and  subsequently  manure  or  earth 
is  added.  In  pits  of  this  character,  which  contain  a 
large  body  of  air,  very  uniform  conditions  are  secured. 
In  them  celery,  leek  and  Brussels  sprouts,  and  even 
cabbage,  may  be  set  compactly  in  rows.  The  plants 
often  will  make  a  root-hold  in  the  soil,  and  therefore 
will  not  shrivel  and  are  not  so  likely  to  rot  as  those 
that  are  thrown  in  loose.  Pits  of  this  character  are 
very  useful  for  the  storing  of  late  or  winter  celery. 
In  them  the  celery  will  grow  somewhat,  and  it  will 
blanch  by  spring.  If,  however,  it  is  desired  to  keep 
celery  only  a  short  time,  and  particularly  if  the  crop  has 
been  blanched  in  the  field,  another  kind  of  house  is  usu- 
ally more  desirable.  In  that  case,  a  house  which  has  a 
little  artificial  heat  is  usually  better;  and  houses  of  this 
kind  are  used  in  the  Kalamazoo  celery  region.  These 
will  be  discussed  when  the  subject  of  celery  is  considered. 
Nearly  all  root  crops,  as  beets,  carrots,  potatoes,  are 
kept  over  winter  with  ease  by  burying  them  in  the 
field.  It  is  well  to  choose  a  warm  and  well -drained  soil. 
It  is  important  that  the  pit  be  covered  very  lightly  at 
first,  and  more  covering  added  as  the  cold  weather  comes 
on.  If  the  full  amount  of  covering  is  applied  at  first, 


234         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

the  products  are  likely  to  heat  and  decay  will  set  in. 
Be  sure  that  the  beets  and  potatoes  are  not  attacked 
by  fungous  diseases  before  they  are  put  in  the  pit.  It 
is  customary  to  make  a  small  circular  or  rectangular 
excavation  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  deep  and  from 
six  to  eight  feet  across.  In  this  the  roots  are  piled 
in  a  tall  cone.  Straw  or  salt  hay  or  other  dry  litter 
is  then  thrown  over  the  pile  to  protect  from  the  early 
frosts.  As  the  season  advances,  an  inch  or  two  of 
earth  is  thrown  over  the  straw  and  finally,  when  winter 
threatens  to  close  in,  the  pile  is  covered  deep  enough 
to  give  full  protection.  Usually  ten  to  twelve  inches 
of  earth  over  the  straw  will  be  sufficient,  the  straw 
itself  being  four  to  six  inches  thick  after  it  is  well 
matted  down.  In  severe  climates  the  earth  may  then 
be  covered  with  a  foot  or  two  of  horse  manure.  Ap- 
ples can  be  buried  in  this  way  with  very  good  results, 
particularly  the  long -keeping  varieties,  as  Russets. 

If  a  great  quantity  of  roots  is  to  be  stored,  the  pit 
may  be  elongated  to  any  length  required.  It  is  well 
not  to  make  it  much  wider  than  six  or  eight  feet,  else 

the  vegetables  will  be 
likely  to  heat  and  there 
may  be  too  great  pres- 
sure  °n  the  lowermost 

Fig.  60.    A  compartment-pit,  after  each       tubers.        An     excellent 
compartment  is  covered.  -,.«      , .  „  , ,      , 

modification  of  the  long 

pit  is  the  compartment -pit  (Fig.  60).  This  has  narrow 
partitions  of  earth  every  four  or  five  feet,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  heating  of  the  vegetables  and  also  allowing  one 
compartment  to  be  emptied  during  the  winter  without 


The    Compartment- Pit  235 

exposing  another.  Usually  these  compartment -pits  are 
sunk  two  or  three  feet  in  the  earth  and  a  partition  of 
soil  six  to  twelve  inches  wide  is  left  between  the  exca- 
vations. Each  pit  is  then  filled  until  it  is  "rounded  full" 
and  is  covered  as  above  described.  It  is  often  difficult 
to  make  these  partitions  hold  their  shape,  however, 
particularly  in  loose  and  sandy  soil.  In  such  cases  the 
vegetables  may  be  heaped  in  several  piles  in  a  long 
pit  and  earth  tramped  in  between  the  piles. 

Whatever  the  style  of  pit,  it  is  essential  that  the 
soil  be  naturally  well  drained,  and  a  furrow  or  ditch 
should  be  opened  around  the  pit  to  carry  off  surface 
water. 

NOTE. —  If  the  reader  desires  literature  on  the  making  of  a 
farm  cold-storage  building,  he  may  consult  Prof.  F.  Wm.  Bane, 
Proc.  18th  Annual  Meeting  Soc.  Prom.  Agric.  Sci.  (Detroit,  1897), 
and  press  bulletin  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.,  1900.  Also  Bull.  84,  Kan. 
Exp.  Sta.  (April,  1899). 


PAET  II 
VEGETABLE-GARDENING    CEOPS 

CHAPTER  VIII 

INTBOD  UCTOE Y  DISC  USSION 

IN  considering  the  culture  of  the  various  crops,  it 
is  essential  that  one  be  able  to  distinguish  principles 
from  mere  details  of  practice.  Gardening  books  and 
essays  are  replete  with  rules  and  advice ;  but  after 
one  has  read  them  he  may  still  be  ignorant  of  the 
essential  things  that  the  given  crop  needs.  The  de- 
mands which  are  essential  or  peculiar  to  the  crop 
should  be  presented  at  the  outset ;  thereafter  the 
details  of  practice  —  to  show  how  these  essentials  are 
secured — may  be  considered.  From  the  mass  of  detail 
and  of  special  and  local  practice,  one  must  pick  the 
kernel, —  the  little  grain  of  truth  that  applies  every- 
where and  always. 

A  principle  is  a  universal  truth.  Under  similar  nat- 
ural conditions  it  applies  everywhere.  It  expounds  the 
reason  why.  It  explains.  Merely  telling  how  to  do  a 
thing  may  be  of  little  avail  in  a  book,  for  if  a  book  is 
good  for  anything  it  is  read  in  many  places  and  must 
apply  to  different  conditions.  One  can  never  under- 
stand a  thing  until  he  knows  the  reason  why.  Knowing 

(237) 


238         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

this,  he  can  work  out  his  method;  or  if  he  cannot  work 
out  a  method,  he  is  necessarily  the  servant  of  some  one 
who  can.  Most  men  do  not  rise  above  details. 

The  main  or  bold  facts  which  one  needs  first  to  know 
about  a  vegetable  he  would  cultivate  are  these:  (1) 
whether  root  crop,  leaf  crop,  fruit  crop;  (2)  demands 
as  to  season  or  climate, — cold -weather  crop  or  warm- 
weather  crop;  (3)  duration  of  its  growth, — early  or  quick 
crop,  full-season  crop,  catch-crop,  companion -crop;  (4) 
whether  to  be  transplanted  or  not;  (5)  to  be  grown  in 
hills  or  drills;  (6)  the  special  demands  as  to  soil  and 
plant-food.  Knowing  these  things,  he  next  inquires 
what  peculiar  treatments  the  crop  demands  in  tillage  and 
other  special  care,  what  are  its  enemies,  and  what  are 
the  means  of  harvesting  and  marketing.  In  the  follow- 
ing pages  an  effort  is  made  to  give  the  comprehensive 
view  when  treating  the  different  crops;  details  of  prac- 
tice are  considered  to  be  of  secondary  importance  to  the 
object  which  the  author  now  has  in  view  and  he  has 
not  treated  them  in  full,  although  success  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  any  crop  is  impossible  without  close  attention  to 
these  details. 

1.   CLASSIFICATION  OF  CEOPS 

The  first  essential  in  an  anatysis  of  the  methods  of 
cultivating  the  crops  is  a  classification  of  the  crops 
themselves.  A  mere  alphabetical  arrangement  is  the 
best  for  easy  reference  and  for  those  who  are  looking 
chiefly  for  rules,  but  it  does  not  contribute  to  an  un- 
derstanding of  principles.  Related  plants  demand  sim- 


Tender  and   Hardy   Plants  239 

ilar  care:   and  these  plants  should  be  thrown  together 
in  groups. 

It  is  important  that  the  intending  cultivator  classify 
the  plant  with  reference  to  climate  or  season.  Some 
vegetables  are  essentially  hot -season  or  semi-tropical 
plants:  of  such  are  corn,  tomato,  cucumber,  all  mel- 
ons, squashes  and  pumpkins,  beans,  okra,  eggplant, 
red  pepper  or  capsicum,  sweet  potato.  These  plants  are 
injured  or  killed  by  light  frost.  They  are  commonly 
classed  as  "tender."  They  should  not  be  set  in  the 
open  until  danger  of  frost  is  past.  Other  vegetables 
are  cool-season  or  mid- temperate  plants:  of  such  are 
all  root  crops,  potato,  all  onion-like  plants,  pea,  spinach, 
all  cole  crops,  lettuce,  celery,  cress,  asparagus,  rhubarb. 
They  are  classed  as  "hardy,"  since,  when  properly  grown 
and  handled,  they  will  withstand  considerable  frost. 

There  are  three  general  methods  or  schemes  of  clas- 
sifying kitchen -garden  vegetables:  (1)  A  classification 
based  primarily  on  the  uses  to  which  the  crops  are  put. 
The  most  perfect  illustration  of  this  classification  is 
Loudon's  (Cyclopcedia  of  Gardening),  of  which  he  re- 
marks :  "  Though  no  such  arrangement  can  be  absolutely 
perfect,  from  the  circumstance  of  some  of  the  plants 
being  used  for  different  purposes,  yet,  by  bringing  to- 
gether such  as  present  most  points  of  union  something 
better  than  a  mere  alphabetical  catalogue  is  formed."  * 
This  scheme,  somewhat  modified,  is  used  by  Burr  in  his 
"Field  and  Garden  Vegetables  of  America,"  the  only 
American  work  which  has  classified  the  subject.  (2) 

*  London's  classification,  with  minor  modifications,  is  printed  on  p.  258  of 
the  fourth  edition  of  "The  Horticulturist's  Rule-Book." 


240        The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

A  classification  based  on  botanical  kinships  or  on  natu- 
ral1" families.  This  gives  the  most  perfect  scheme,  so 
far  as  mere  classification  is  concerned,  but  it 'does  not 
elucidate  principles  of  cultivation.  (3)  A  classifica- 
tion based  on  essential  methods  of  culture.  Such  a 
scheme,  although  necessarily  arbitrary  in  some  places, 
I  now  propose.  In  many  parts  it  closely  parallels 
Loudon's. 

CLASS  I.    ANNUAL  VEGETABLES. 

Sub -Class  I.    Crops  grown  for  subterranean  parts. 
Group  1.    EOOT  CROPS. 
Beet,  Beta  vulgaris. 
Carrot,  Daucus  Carota. 
Parsnip,  Pastinaca  sativa. 
Radish,  Raplianus  sativus. 
Salsify,  Tragopogon  porrifolius.  • 
Scorzonera,  Scorzonera  Hispanica. 
Turnip  and  Rutabaga,  Brassica. 
Horse-radish,*  Cochlearia  Armoracia, 

Group  2.    TUBER  CROPS. 

Potato,  Solanum  tuberosum. 
Sweet  Potato,  Ipomcea  Batatas. 

Group  3.    BULB  CROPS. 

Onion,  Allium  Cepa,  A.  fistulosum. 
Leek,  A.  Porrum. 
Garlic,  A.  sativum. 
Shallot,  A.  Ascalonicum. 
Give,  A.  Schcenoprasum. 

*  Horse-radish  and  dandelion  are  perennials ;  but  as  now  grown  they  do  not 
occupy  the  ground  more  than  a  year. 


Classification  241 

Sub -Class  II.    Crops  grown  for  foliage  parts. 
Group  4.    COLE  CROPS. 

Kale  and  Borecole,  Brassica  oleracea. 
Brussels  Sprouts,  B.  oleracea. 
Cabbage,  B.  oleracea. 
Cauliflower  and  Broccoli,  B.  oleracea. 
Kohlrabi,  B.  oleracea. 

Group  5.    POT-HERB  CROPS  (used  for  "greens"). 
Spinach,  Spinacea  oleracea. 
Chard  and  Beet,  Beta  vulgaris. 
Orach,  Atriplex  hortensis. 
Purslane,  Portulaca  oleracea. 
Dandelion,  Taraxacum  officinale. 
Mustard,  Brassica  species. 

Group  6.    SALAD  CROPS. 
Lettuce,  Lactuca  sativa. 
Endive,  Cichorium  Endivia.' 
Celery,  Apium  graveolens. 
Parsley,  Carum  Petroselinum. 
Cress,  Lepidium  sativum. 
Upland  or  Winter  Cress,  Barbarea  vulgaris. 
Water  Cress,  Nasturtium  officinale. 

Sub- Class  III.    Crops  grown  for  fruit  or  seed  parts. 
Group  7.    PULSE  CROPS. 

Bean,  Phaseolus,  Dolichos,  Vicia. 
Pea,  Pisum  sativum. 

Group  8.    SOLANACEOUS  CROPS. 

Tomato,  Lycopersicum  esculentum. 
Eggplant,  Solarium  Melongena. 
Pepper,  Capsicum  annuum. 
Physalis  or  Husk  Tomato,  Pliysalis. 

Group  9.    CUCURBITOUS  OR  VINE  CROPS. 
Cucumber,  Cucumis  sativus. 
Melon,  C.  Melo. 


242         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Gherkin,  C.  Anguria. 

Watermelon,  Citrullus  vulgaris. 

Luffa,  Luffa  ^Egyptiaca  and  L.  acutangula. 

Zit-Kwa,  or  Wax  Gourd,  Benincasa  cerifera 

Pumpkin,  Cucurbita. 

Squash,  Cucurbita. 

Group  10.    CORN.    OKRA.    MARTYNIA. 
Sweet  Corn,  Zea  Mays. 
Okra,  Hibiscus  esculentus. 
Martynia,  Marty nia  proboscidia. 

Group  11.     CONDIMENTAL  AND   SWEET  HERBS. 

Group  12.  MUSHROOM.  (Culturally  and  otherwise  the  mush- 
room is  so  unlike  other  garden  vegetables  that  it  demands 
special  and  separate  treatment.  Therefore,  it  is  not  dis- 
cussed in  this  book.  It  is  not  a  vegetable -gardening 
subject,  although  usually  so  classed.) 

CLASS  II.    PERENNIAL  VEGETABLES. 

Asparagus,  Asparagus  officinalis. 

Ehubarb,  Rheum  Rhaponticum. 

Docks,  Rnmex. 

Sorrel,  Rumex. 

Artichoke,  Globe,  Cynara  Scotymus. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem,  Helianthus  tuberosus. 

Sea  Kale,  Crambe  maritima. 

2.    BOOKS 

The  person  who  expects  to  secure  the  best  results 
in  crops  and  in  the  pleasure  of  growing  them  should 
be  a  reader.  Books,  periodicals,  and  bulletins  are 
suggestive  of  new  ideas,  and  a  new  idea  is  worth  the 
having  for  the  mere  novelty  of  it.  Every  book  has 
some  value.  Even  if  its  advice  is  all  wrong,  it  chal- 
lenges experiment  and  controversy,  and  thereby  has 


Books  243 

some  excuse  for  its  being.  But  no  book  is  all  wrong. 
More  often  the  reader  is  wrong,  in  desiring  to  follow 
its  details  to  the  letter  rather  than  to  catch  its  spirit 
and  to  arouse  himself  to  a  new  point  of  view. 

The  following  list  gives  a  general  view  of  the  his- 
tory of  vegetable -gardening  in  America.  Study  the 
titles  chronologically  from  1799  to  1900,  and  note  the 
ways  of  looking  at  the  subject.  Most  of  the  books 
here  mentioned  are  now  valuable  only  as  histories. 
Some  of  them  are  invaluable  as  practical  manuals.  It 
is  not  expected  that  the  reader  will  buy  any  consid 
erable  number  of  them,  but  the  list  will  aid  him  to 
make  a  selection.  In  those  which  are  now  out  of  date 
and  out  of  print  he  may  have  little  interest,  but  it 
should  be  some  satisfaction,  at  the  least,  to  know  what 
has  been  written  and  who  has  written  it.  Even  if  one 
cannot  use  this  knowledge  in  direct  practice,  he  should 
consider  that  the  consciousness  of  knowing  constitutes 
half  the  pleasure  of  living. 

Every  person  who  would  grow  vegetables  should 
have  two  or  three  books  which  treat  the  general  subject, 
as  Greiner,  Landreth,  Henderson,  Green,  Eawson.  If 
he  specializes  with  any  crop  he  should  procure  a  treatise 
on  that  particular  subject.  If  he  lives  in  a  peculiar 
geographical  region,  he  will  need  a  book  written  par- 
ticularly for  that  area,  as  Rolf's  for  the  Atlantic  South 
and  Wickson's  for  California.  If  one  desires  an  author- 
itative cyclopedic  work  on  vegetables,  he  should  by  all 
means  own  "The  Vegetable  Garden "  (London),  an  Eng- 
lish version  of  Vilmorin's  "Les  Plantes  Potageres." 
For  odd  and  little -known  vegetables  the  student  may 


244         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

consult  Paillieux  and  Bois;  "Le  Potager  (Tun  Curieux," 
which,  unhappily,  is  not  rendered  into  English.  A  book 
that  discusses  vegetables  with  particular  reference  to 
methods  of  displaying  them  at  shows  is  Edwin  Beckett's 
"Vegetables  for  Exhibition  and  Home  Consumption" 
(London,  1899).  Persons  who  are  interested  in  grow- 
ing plants  for  exhibition  will  also  find  help  in  William- 
son and  Dunn's  "The  Horticultural  Exhibitors'  Hand- 
book" (London,  1892),  although  the  English  ideals  in 
exhibition  are  often  unlike  the  American.  On  methods 
of  exhibiting,  the  reader  should  also  consult  Bull.  69, 
new  series,  of  the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station, 
(1894),  on  "Vegetables  Grown  for  Exhibition." 

For  descriptions  of  varieties  one  must  rely  on  the 
seed  catalogues  and  experiment  station  bulletins.  One 
notable  American  book  was  devoted  to  this  subject: 
Burr's  "Field  and  Garden  Vegetables  of  America"  (Bos- 
ton, 1863).  It  is  an  illustrated  work  of  674  pages. 
Three  years  later  an  abridgment  of  this  work  was  made 
under  the  name  of  "Garden  Vegetables." 

Finally  it  may  be  said  that  the  student  of  American 
vegetable -gardening  literature  will  be  struck  with  the 
lack  of  any  sustained  effort  to  expound  principles. 

American  Books  on  Vegetable -Gardening 

The  following  inventory  of  books  in  the  author's 
library  is  a  practically  complete  list  of  American  book 
writings  on  vegetable-gardening  subjects.  It  comprises 
not  only  those  which  are  wholly  devoted  to  vegetable- 
gardening  matters,  but  also  books  of  general  gardening 


Books  245 

that  give  any  important  part  of  their  space  to  discus- 
sions of  vegetables.  The  list  does  not  include  books  on 
the  forcing  of  vegetables. 

ANDERSON,  JAMES. 

See  Marshall,  Charles.  "An  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  and 
Practice  of  Gardening." 

ARLIE,  C.  H. 

See  Greiner,  T.,  and  Arlie,  C.  H.    "How  to  Grow  Onions." 
BAILEY,  L.  H. 

GARDEN  -MAKING.  Suggestions  for  the  utilizing  of  home  grounds. 
Aided  by  L.  R.  Taft,  F.  A.  Waugh,  Ernest  Walker.  New 
York  and  London.  1898.  [c.  1898.*]  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. pp.  vii  +  417.  7x5f.  [The  Garden-Craft  Series.] 
Vegetables  by  Waugh. 

—  Same.     Reprinted  1898.    pp.  vii  +  417. 

—  Same,  3d  ed.,  revised,    pp.  vii  +  417. 

THE  HORTICULTURIST'S  RULE-BOOK;  a  compendium  of  useful 
information  for  fruit-growers,  truck  -gardeners,  florists  and 
others.  Completed  to  the  close  of  the  year  1889.  New  York. 
1889.  [c.  1889.]  Garden  Publishing  Company,  pp.  236. 


—  Same,  2d  ed.,  -revised.     Completed  to  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1892.     [c.  1892.]     The  Rural  Publishing  Company,    pp. 
221.     7%x5. 

—  Same,  3d  ed.,  revised  and  extended.     New  York  and  London. 
1895.     [c.1895].     Macmillan  &  Co.     pp.  ix+302.     7x4%. 

—Same,  4th  ed.,  1896.  [c.  1895.]  pp.  ix  +  312.  7x4.  B.  [The 
Garden-Craft  Series.] 

BARNARD,  CHARLES. 

MY  HANDKERCHIEF  GARDEN  ;  size,  25  x  60  feet.  Results  :  A 
garden,  fresh  vegetables,  exercise,  health  and  $20.49.  New 
York.  n.d.  [n.  c.]  E.  H.  Libby.  pp.69.  7^x5.  [1st  ed.] 

*  Signifies  date  of  copyright. 

t  size  of  Book  in  inches,  as  measured  on  the  cover. 

[n.  c.J=No  record  of  copyright. 
[n.  d.]  =  No  date. 


246         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

-Same,  2d  ed.  Illustrated.  1893.  [c.  1893.]  The  Rural 
Publishing  Company,  pp.75.  7%x5.  [The  Rural  Library, 
Vol.  I,  No.  17,  April.] 

BEADLE,  D.  W. 

CANADIAN  FRUIT,  FLOWER,  AND  KITCHEN  GARDENER  ;  a  guide  in 
all  matters  relating  to  the  cultivation  of  fruits,  flowers  and 
vegetables,  and  their  value  for  cultivation  in  this  climate. 
Illustrated.  Colored  plates.  Toronto.  1872.  [c.  1872.] 
James  Campbell  &  Son.  pp.  xvi-f  391.  9x6. 

BOCHOVE,  G.  VAN  and  BROTHER. 

KALAMAZOO  CELERY  ;  its  cultivation  and  secret  of  success. 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.  1893.  [c.  1886.].  Kalamazoo  Publishing 
Co.  pp.  29.  6%x4%. 

BOSSON,  CHARLES  P. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  POTATO,  AND  REMEDY  FOR  THE  POTATO 
PLAGUE.  In  two  parts;  containing  a  history  of  the  potato, 
its  cultivation  and  uses;  also  a  treatise  on  the  potato  malady, 
its  origin  and  appearances  in  different  countries,  a  view  of 
various  theories  concerning  it,  with  the  remedies  proposed, 
and  an  inquiry  into  the  causes  producing  the  disease,  with 
directions  for  staying  its  further  progress.  Boston.  1846. 
[c.  1846.]  Published  by  E.  L.  Pratt,  pp.  ii  +  118.  8%  x  5. 

BR1DGEMAN,  THOMAS. 

THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER'S  ASSISTANT.  In  three  parts,  con- 
taining complete  directions  for  the  cultivation  of  vegetables, 
flowers,  fruit  trees,  and  grape-vines.  New  edition;  revised, 
enlarged  and  illustrated  by  S.  Edward  Todd.  Part  I.  Kitchen- 
Gardening,  pp.  152;  Part  II.  Fruit- Gardening,  pp.  211;  Part 
III.  Flower- Gardening,  pp.  166.  [The  work  is  a  revision  of 
"The  Young  Gardener's  Assistant."] 

THE  KITCHEN  GARDENER'S  INSTRUCTOR;  containing  a  catalogue 
of  garden  and  herb  seed,  with  practical  directions  under  each 
head  for  the  cultivation  of  culinary  vegetables  and  herbs. 
With  a  calendar,  showing  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in  a 
kitchen  garden  every  month  throughout  the  season.  Also, 
directions  for  forcing  or  forwarding  vegetables  out  of  the  ordi- 
nary season.  The  whole  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  United 


Books  247 

States.  A  new  and  improved  edition.  New  York.  1860, 
[o.  1847.]  C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  pp.  xii  +  164.  7%x5. 
THE  YOUNG  GARDENER'S  ASSISTANT;  containing  a  catalogue  of 
garden  and  flower  seeds,  with  practical  directions  under  each 
head,  for  the  cultivation  of  culinary  vegetables  and  flowers. 
Also,  directions  for  cultivating  fruit  trees,  the  grape  vines, 
etc.  ;  to  which  is  added  a  calendar,  showing  the  work  neces- 
sary to  be  done  in  the  various  departments  of  gardening  in 
every  month  of  the  year.  Seventh  edition,  improved.  New 
York.  1837.  [c.  1837.]  Mitchell  &  Turner,  pp.  vi  +  360. 


—Same,  8th  edition,  improved.     1840.     [c.  1840.]    pp.  vi  +  408. 


—  Same,  the  whole  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  United  States. 
New  edition,  with  an  appendix,  containing  remarks  on  the 
all-eyed  disease  of  the  potato,  etc.  Part  I.  Vegetable  depart- 
ment. New  York.  1865.  [1847.]  William  Wood  &  Co. 
pp.  vi  +  164.  7%  x  5.  [The  three  parts  were  also  pub- 
lished separately  as  "Kitchen  Gardener's  Instructor,"  "Fruit- 
Cultivator's  Manual,"  and  "Florist's  Guide."] 
BRILL,  FRANCIS. 

CAULIFLOWERS  AND  How  TO  GROW  THEM;  with  plain  practical 
and  explicit  directions  in  minute  detail  for  the  cultivation  and 
management  of  this  crop,  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed  to  the 
marketing  of  the  product.  Eiverhead,  New  York.  1886. 
[n.  c.]  Published  by  the  author,  pp.16.  9x5%. 

FARM-GARDENING  AND  SEED-  GROWING.  New  and  enlarged  edi- 
tion. With  suggestions  to  seed-growers.  By  George  Thur- 
ber.  New  York.  1897.  [1883.]  Orange  Judd  Co.  pp.166. 
7^x5. 

BUIST,  ROBERT. 

THE  FAMILY  KITCHEN  GARDENER;  containing  plain  and  accurate 
descriptions  of  all  the  different  species  and  varieties  of  culi- 
nary vegetables;  with  their  botanical,  English,  French,  and 
German  names,  alphabetically  arranged,  and  the  best  mode  of 
cultivating  them,  in  the  garden  or  under  glass;  with  a  de- 
scription of  implements  and  medicinal  herbs  in  general  use. 
Also,  descriptions  and  characters  of  the  most  select  fruits,  their 


248         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

management,  propagation,  etc.  Illustrated  with  twenty-five 
engravings.  New  York.  1852.  [c.  1847.]  C.  M.  Saxton.  pp. 
216.  7%x5. 

—Same,  New  York.  1867.  [c.  1847.]  Orange  Judd  Co.  pp. 
216.  7%x5. 

BURPEE,  W.  ATLEE  &  CO. 

VEGETABLES  FOR  THE  HOME  GARDEN.  Third  ed.  Illustrated. 
Philadelphia.  1898.  [c.  1896.]  pp.  127.  7>^x5. 

BURPEE,  W.  ATLEE. 
BOOT  CROPS  FOR  STOCK   FEEDING  AND  How  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Compiled   from  the   prize    essays   and    practical    experience. 

Illustr.     Philadelphia.     1888.      [c.    1888].     W.  Atlee  Burpee 

&  Co.     pp.  viii.  +  72.     1%  x  5. 
How  TO  GROW  MELONS  FOR  MARKET.    Illustrated.    Philadelphia. 

1888.       [c.   1888.]       W.    Atlee    Burpee   &   Co.       pp.  x  +  81. 

7^x5. 
See  Pedersen,  J.,  and  Howard,  G.  H.     "How  to  Grow  Cabbages 

and  Cauliflower  Most  Profitably." 
See  Darlington,  E.  D.,  and  Moll,  L.  M.     «  How  and  What  to 

Grow  ia  a  Kitchen  Garden  of  One  Acre." 
See  Greiner,  T.,  and  Arlie,  C.  H.     "How  to  Grow  Onions." 

BURR,  FEARING,  JR. 

THE  FIELD  AND  GARDEN  VEGETABLES  OF  AMERICA  ;  containing 
full  descriptions  of  nearly  eleven  hundred  species  and  varie- 
ties, with  directions  for  propagation,  culture  and  use.  Illus- 
trated. Boston.  1863.  [c.  1863.]  Crosby  &  Nichols,  pp. 
xv +  674.  9x6. 

GARDEN  VEGETABLES,  AND  How  TO  CULTIVATE  THEM.  Illus- 
trated. Boston.  3866.  [c.  1866.]  J.  E.  Tilton  &  Co.  pp. 
12  +  355.  7%x5.  [Abridgment  of  the  above]. 

CARMAN,  ELBERT  S. 

THE  NEW  POTATO  CULTURE  ;  as  developed  by  the  trench  system, 
by  the  judicious  use  of  chemical  fertilizers,  and  by  the  experi- 
ments carried  on  at  the  rural  grounds  during  the  past  fifteen 
years.  New  York.  1891.  [c.  1891.]  The  Rural  Publishing 
Co.  pp.  165. 


Books  249 

COBBETT,  WILLIAM. 

THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER;  a  treatise  on  the  situation,  soil,  fenc- 
ing and  laying-out  of  gardens;  on  the  making  and  managing 
of  hotbeds  and  greenhouses,  and  on  the  propagation  and  cul- 
tivation of  the  several  sorts  of  vegetables,  herbs,  fruits  and 
flowers.  Baltimore  and  Frederick,  Md.  1823.  [pref.  1819.] 
J.  Robinson, and  J.  Robinson  &  Co.  pp.  ix  +  252.  5%x3%. 

—Same.  New  York.  1856.  [preface  1819.]  C.  M.  Saxton  & 
Co.  pp.230.  8x4%. 

—Same.  New  York.  n.  d.  [preface  1819.]  Orange  Judd  & 
Co.  pp.  230.  Q%x4. 

— Same.  American  stereotype  edition.  Concord,  N.  H.  1842. 
[c.  1842.]  L.  Hamilton,  Boston.  Saxton  &  Pierce,  New  York. 
Saxton  &  Miles,  pp.  x  +  271.  6%x4%.  B. 

— Same.     Paper  cover. 

COMPLETE  GARDENER  AND  FLORIST,  THE  ;  containing  an  account 
of  every  vegetable  production  cultivated  for  the  table,  with 
directions  for  planting  and  raising  flowers.  9th  ed.  New 
York.  1849.  [n.  c.]  Dewitt  &  Davenport,  pp.  iv  +  92. 
7%  x  4%.  [Bound  with  the  "  Flower  Gardener."] 

CRIDER,  MRS.  H.  M. 

How  TO  GROW  FINE  CELERY.  A  New  Method.  York,  Pa.  1884. 
[c.  1884.]  H.  M.  Crider,  publisher,  pp.  14.  8>£x5}£. 

CROZIER,  A.  A. 
THE     CAULIFLOWER.      1    plate.       Ann    Arbor,    Mich.       1891. 

[c.  1891.]     Register  Publishing  Co.    pp.230.    7%x5%. 
How    TO    COOK    CAULIFLOWER.       Ann    Arbor,  Mich.      n.    d. 

[c.  1891.]     The  Register  Publishing  Co.    pp.28.    7%x5. 

CUMMINS,  D. 

See  Day,  J.  W.     "Tomato  Culture." 
DARLINGTON,  E.  D.,  and  MOLL.  L.  M. 

How  AND  WHAT  TO  GROW  IN  A  KITCHEN  GARDEN  OF  ONE  ACRE. 

Edited  by  W.  Atlee  Burpee.    Illustrated.    Philadelphia.    1888. 

[c.  1888.]      Published   by  W.  Atlee  Burpee,      pp.  vii  +  198. 

7^x5. 

—Same  (6th  ed.),  1893.      [c.  1888.]      pp.  vii  +  198.      7%x5. 


250         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

DAY,  j.  w. 

TREATISE  ON  TOMATO  CULTURE.  Crystal  Springs,  Miss.  1891. 
[n.  c.]  pp.  25.  8%x5%. 

DAY,  J.  W.,  CUMMINS,  D.,  and  ROOT,  A.  I. 

TOMATO  CULTURE  ;  in  three  parts.  Part  I.  Tomato  culture  in 
the  south.  Part  II.  Tomato  culture  especially  for  canning 
factories.  Part  III.  Plant -growing  for  market,  and  high- 
pressure  gardening  in  general.  A  practical  book  for  those 
who  work  under  either  glass  or  cloth  as  protection  from  frost. 
Illustrated.  Medina,  Ohio.  1892.  [n.  c.]  A.  I.  Eoot.  pp. 
135.  6^x5. 

ELDER,  WALTER. 

THE  COTTAGE  GARDEN  OF  AMERICA;  containing  practical  direc- 
tions for  the  culture  of  flowers,  fruits  and  vegetables,  the 
natures  and  improvement  of  soils,  manures,  and  their  appli- 
cation, wounds,  diseases  and  cures,  monthly  calendar,  insects, 
botany,  etc.  Philadelphia.  1849.  [c.  1848.]  Moss  &  Broth- 
ers, pp.  v  +  233.  7%x4X. 

— Same,  2d  edition,  revised  and  improved.  1850.  [c.  1848]. 
pp.  viii  +  233. 

EMERSON,  G. 
See  Neill,  Patrick.     "The  Practical  Fruit,  Flower  and  Vegetable 

Gardener's  Companion." 
FESSENDEN,  T.  G. 
THE  NEW  AMERICAN  GARDENER  ;  containing  practical  directions 

on  the  culture  of  fruits  and  vegetables;  including  landscape 

and  ornamental  gardening,  grape  vines,  silk,  strawberries,  etc. 

Boston.     1828.     [c.  1828.]     J.  B.  Russell,     pp.  307.     7x4%. 
—Same,  4th  ed.     Boston.     1833.     [1828.]     Carter  and  Hendee. 

pp.307.     7%x5. 
—Same,  6th  ed.     Boston.     1832.     [c.  1828.]     Carter  &  Hendee, 

and  John  B.  Russell,     pp.  312.     7x4%. 
—Same,  7th   ed.      Boston  and  Cincinnati.      1833.       [c.  1828.] 

Russell,   Odiorne  &  Co. ;   Carter,   Hendee  &  Co.;  H.  L.  and 

H.  S.  Barnum.     pp.  307.     7>£x5. 
—Same,  13th  ed.     Boston  and  Philadelphia.     1839.     [c.  1828.] 

Otis  Broadars  &  Co. ;  Thomas  Cowperthwaite  &  Co.     pp.  307. 


Books  251 


.—Same,  16th  ed.     1843.     [c.  1828.]     pp.306. 

—Same,  19th  ed.     1847.     [c.  1828.]     pp.306.     7%x5. 

—Same,  20th  ed.     1850.     [c.  1828.]     pp.306.     7%x4%. 
,  —  Same,   30th  ed.      1857.      [c.   1828.]      pp.   306.      8x5%. 
[Bound  with  "The  Complete  Farmer."] 

THE  AMERICAN  KITCHEN  GARDEN  ;  containing  practical  directions 
for  the  culture  of  vegetables.  Also  garden  fruits,  strawberry, 
raspberry,  gooseberry,  currants,  melons,  etc.,  etc.  Revised 
from  the  35th  ed.,  and  adapted  to  the  use  of  families,  by  a 
practical  gardener.  New  York.  1856.  [c.  1852.]  C.  M. 
Saxton  &  Co.  pp.  viii  +  120.  8x5%.  B.  [Bound  fifth  in 
Saxton's  "Rural  Hand-Books."  2d  series.] 

—  Same,  separate.     1852. 

FITCH,  JOHN  M. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  ON  VEGETABLE  CULTURE.  For  the 
market-gardener,  the  farmer,  and  any  one  interested  in  good 
things  to  eat.  Written  expressly  for  F.  Barteldes  &  Co. 
Lawrence,  Kansas.  1898.  Journal  Publishing  Co.  pp.  32. 


FITZ,  JAMES. 

SWEET  POTATO  CULTURE  ;  giving  full  instructions  from  starting 
the  plants  to  harvesting  and  storing  the  crop,  with  a  chapter 
on  the  Chinese  yam.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  New  York. 
1886.  [c.  1886.]  Orange  Judd  Co.,  David  W.  Judd,  president. 
pp.  86.  7%x5. 

GARDEN,  THE;  a  pocket  manual  of  practical  horticulture:  or 
how  to  cultivate  vegetables,  fruits  and  flowers,  embracing  an 
exposition  of  the  nature  and  action  of  soils  and  manures,  and 
the  structure  and  growth  of  plants;  directions  for  the  forming 
of  a  garden;  description  of  implements  and  fixtures;  instruc- 
tions for  sowing,  transplanting,  budding,  grafting,  and  cultivat- 
ing vegetables,  fruits  and  flowers,  with  a  chapter  on  ornamental 
trees  and  shrubs  by  the  author  of  "How  to  Write,"  "How  to 
Behave,"  etc.  No.  1.  Illustrated.  New  York.  1858.  [c.  1858.] 
Fowler  and  Wells,  pp.  xi  +  166.  7x4. 
-Same,  No.  3.  7%x5. 


252         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

GARDINER,  JOHN,  and  HEPBURN,  DAVID. 

THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER;  containing  ample  directions  for 
working  a  kitchen  garden,  every  month  in  the  year;  and 
copious  instructions  for  the  cultivation  of  flower  gardens, 
vineyards,  nurseries,  hop-yards,  greenhouses  and  hothouses. 
Washington.  1804.  [c.  1804.]  Samuel  H.  Smith,  pp.  204. 
7x4^. 
GREEN,  SAMUEL  B. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING  ;  a  manual  on  the  growing  of  vegetables 
for  home  use  and  marketing.  Prepared  especially  for  the 
classes  of  the  school  of  agriculture  of  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota. With  115  illustrations.  St.  Paul.  1896.  [c.  1896.] 
Author.  Webb  Publishing  Co.,  agents,  pp.224.  7x5. 

—Same,  2d  edition,  revised.  With  122  illustrations.  1899. 
[c.  1899.]  pp.  240.  7x5. 

GREGORY,  JAMES  J.  H. 

CABBAGES:  How  to  grow  them.  A  practical  treatise  on  cabbage 
culture,  giving  full  details  on  every  point,  including  keeping 
and  marketing  the  crop.  Marblehead,  Mass.  1881.  [c.  1870.] 
Messenger  Steam  Printing  House,  pp.  72.  7/^x5. 

CARROTS,  MANGOLD- WURTZELS  AND  SUGAR  BEETS:  How  to 
raise  them,  how  to  keep  them,  and  how  to  feed  them.  Mar- 
blehead, Mass.  1882.  [c.  1877.]  Messenger  Steam  Printing 
House,  pp.61.  7/^x5. 

ONION  RAISING:  What  kinds  to  raise,  and  the  way  to  raise  them. 
7th  edition  (revised).  Illustrated.  Marblehead,  Mass.  1881. 
[c.  1864.]  Messenger  Steam  Printing  House,  pp.  42. 
7^x5. 

SQUASHES:  How  to  grow  them.  A  practical  treatise  on  squash 
culture.  Giving  full  details  on  every  point,  including  keeping 
and  marketing  the  crop.  New  revised  and  enlarged  edition. 
Illustrated.  New  York.  1889.  [c.  1883.]  Orange  Judd  Co. 
pp.83.  7%x5. 

GREINER,  T. 

CELERY  FOR  PROFIT;  an  expose"  of  modern  methods  in  celery 
growing.  Illustrated.  Philadelphia.  Spring,  1893.  [c. 
1893.]  W.  Atlee  Burpee  &  Co.  pp.  viii  +  85.  1% x 5. 


Books  253 

How  TO  MAKE  THE  GARDEN  PAY.      Illustrated.      Philadelphia. 

1890.     [c.  1890.]     Wm.  Henry  Maule.     pp.272.     9x6. 
— Same,  2d,  revised  aiid  enlarged  edition.      1894.      [c.  1890.] 

pp.319.     9x6. 
ONIONS  FOR  PROFIT;  an  expos6  of   modern   methods   in  onion 

growing.     Illustrated.     Philadelphia.      1893.     [c.  1893.]     W. 

Atlee  Burpee  &  Co.     pp.vi  +  104.     7%x5. 
THE  NEW  ONION  CULTURE  ;    a  story  for  young  and  old,  which 

tells  how  to  grow  2,000  bushels  of  fine  bulbs  on  one  acre.     The 

new   system   fully  explained.     Illustrated.     [La   Salle,   New 

York.]     1891.     [c.  1891.]     pp.  vi  +  62.     7%x5%. 
THE  YOUNG  MARKET- GARDENER;  beginner's  guide.      Parti.  A 

little  pit  well  built.     Part  II.  A  little  plat  well  tilled.     Part 

III.  A  little  purse  well  filled.      Illustrated.      [La  Salle,  New 

York.]    Spring,  1896.    [c.  1895.]    pp.  iv+119.   7%x5%.    [T. 

Greiner's  garden  series.     No.  2.] 
GREINER,  T.,  and  ARLIE,  C.  H. 
How  TO  GROW  ONIONS;  with  notes  on  varieties.     Edited  by  W. 

Atlee  Burpee.     Philadelphia.      1888.      [c.  1887.]      W.  Atlee 

Burpee  &  Co.     pp.  viii  +  71.     7%x5. 
HARRIS,  JOSEPH. 
GARDENING  FOR  YOUNG  AND  OLD.     The  cultivation  of  garden 

vegetables   in   the   farm   garden.      Illustrated.      New  York. 

1897.     [c.  1882.]     Orange  Judd  Co.    pp.191.     7%x5. 
HENDERSON,  PETER. 
GARDENING  FOR  PLEASURE  ;  a  guide  to  the  amateur  in  the  fruit, 

vegetable    and   flower   garden,   with   full  directions   for   the 

greenhouse,  conservatory  and  window  garden.     New,  enlarged 

edition.     Illustrated.     New  York.     1882.     [c.  1875.]     Orange 

Judd  Co.     pp.  v  +  250.     7>£x5. 
—Same.      1888.      [c.   1887.]  "  Orange  Judd  Co.     pp.  vi+404. 

7^x5. 
GARDENING  FOR  PROFIT  ;  a  guide  to  the  successful  cultivation  of 

the  market  and  family  garden.     Illustrated.     New  York.    n.  d. 

[c.  1867.]     Orange  Judd  &  Co.     pp.  viii  +243.     7>£x5. 
— Same,  new   and   enlarged   edition.      1885.      [c.   1874.]      pp. 

vi  +  276. 
— Same,   entirely  new  and   greatly  enlarged.     Illustrated  with 

numerous  new  engravings.    1887.    [c.  1886.]   pp.  xii -f-376. 


254         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

HEPBURN,  DAVID. 

See  Gardiner,  John.     "The  American  Gardener." 

HOLLISTER,  E.  J. 

LIVINGSTON'S  CELERY  BOOK.  Conclusions  at  the  close  of  twenty 
years'  extensive  experience  by  the  author  on  best  methods  of 
preparation  of  soil,  cultivating  and  marketing  the  crop. 
Illustrated.  Columbus,  Ohio.  n.  d.  [c.  1898.]  A.  W.  Liv- 
ingston's Sons.  pp.96.  7/^x5%. 

HOLMES,  FRANCIS  S. 

THE  SOUTHERN  FARMER  AND  MARKET -GARDENER;  being  a  com- 
pilation of  useful  articles  on  these  subjects,  from  the  most 
approved  writers.  Developing  the  principles  and  pointing  out 
the  method  of  their  application  to  the  farming  and  gardening 
of  the  South,  and  particularly  of  the  low  country.  New  im- 
proved and  enlarged  edition.  Charleston,  S.  C.  n.  d.  [c. 
1852.]  Wm.  E.  Babcock.  pp.  viii  +  249.  7Xx4%. 

HOW  TO  GROW  FRUIT,  FLOWERS  AND  VEGETABLES;  and  the  lan- 
guage of  flowers.  New  York.  Norman  L.  Munro.  No  date. 
Paper,  pp.  68.  6%x4. 

HOWARD,  G.  H. 

See  Pedersen,  J.,  and  Howard,  G.  H.  "How  to  Grow  Cab- 
bages and  Cauliflowers  Most  Profitably." 

JACQUES,  D.  H. 

THE  GARDEN;  a  manual  of  practical  horticulture;  or  how  to  cul- 
tivate vegetables,  fruits  and  flowers ;  embracing  an  exposition 
of  the  nature  and  action  of  soils  and  manures  and  the 
structure  and  growth  of  plants ;  directions  for  the  forming  of 
a  garden ;  description  of  implements  and  fixtures ;  instructions 
for  sowing,  transplanting,  budding,  grafting,  and  cultivating 
vegetables,  fruits,  and  flowers ;  with  a  chapter  on  ornamental 
trees  and  shrubs.  Revised  edition.  Illustrated.  New  York, 
[c.  1866.]  Geo.  E.  and  F.  W.  Woodward,  pp.  xii-f  166. 
7^x5. 

KITCHEN  AND  FRUIT  GARDENER,  THE  ;  a  select  manual  of  kitchen 
gardening  and  culture  of  fruits,  containing  familiar  directions 
for  the  most  approved  practice  in  each  department,  descrip- 
tions of  many  valuable  fruits,  and  a  calendar  of  work  to  be 


Books  255 

performed  each  month  in  the  year.  The  whole  adapted  to  the 
climate  of  the  United  States.  Philadelphia.  1844.  [c.  1844.] 
Lea  &  Blanchard.  pp.  xii  +  118.  7%x4%.  [An  American 
edition  of  an  English  work.  Bound  with  the  "Complete 
Florist."] 

LANDRETH,  BURNET. 

MARKET -GARDENING  AND  FARM  NOTES;  experiences  and  obser- 
vations in  the  garden  and  field,  of  interest  to  the  amateur  gar- 
dener, trucker  and  farmer.  New  York.  1893.  [c.  1892.] 
Orange  Judd  Co.  pp.  iv-f-215.  7%x5. 

999  QUERIES,  WITH  ANSWERS  UPON  AGRICULTURAL  AND  HORTI- 
CULTURAL SUBJECTS.  Published  by  David  Landreth  &  Sons. 
Philadelphia.  1784.  [c.  1895.]  Press  of  Maccalla&Co.  pp. 
200.  9}£x6. 

LELIEVRE,  J.  F. 

NOUVEAU  JARDINIER  DE  LA  LOUISIANB;  contenaut  les  instruc- 
tions necessaires  aux  personnes  qui  s'occupent  de  jardinage. 
Nouvelle- Orleans.  1838.  [n.  c.]  J.  F.  Lelievre.  pp. 
viii  +  200.  6>£x4%. 

LIVINGSTON,  A.  W. 

LIVINGSTON  AND  THE  TOMATO  ;  being  a  history  of  experiences  in 
discovering  the  choice  varieties  introduced  by  him,  with  prac- 
tical instructions  for  growers.  Illustrated.  Columbus,  Ohio, 
n.  d.  [c.  1893.]  Published  by  A.  W.  Livingston's  Sons,  Seed- 
men.  pp.176.  7%x5%. 

LIVINGSTON'S  CELERY  BOOK.     See  Hollister,  E.  J. 
LUPTON,  J.  M. 

CABBAGE  AND  CAULIFLOWER  FOR  PROFIT.  With  fifty- three  illus- 
trations. Philadelphia.  1898.  [c.  1894.]  W.  Atlee  Burpee 
&  Co.  pp.  vii  +  122.  7>£x5. 

MARKET  GARDEN,  THE;  a  journal  for  the  market- gardener. 
Monthly.  Illustrated.  Minneapolis.  Jan.,  1894-Sept.,  1898. 
The  Market  Garden  Co.  12x9.  The  first  number  was  issued 
in  Jan.,  1894,  although  it  bears  date  of  Jan.  1,  1893.  It  is  a 
4-page  issue.  The  second  number  appeared  in  July,  1894.  It 
was  not  given  general  circulation,  but  was  sent  out  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  opinions  as  to  the  advisability  of  establishing 


256         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

such  a  journal.  The  regular  issue  of  the  periodical  began  with 
October,  1894.  This  was  the  only  attempt  in  North  America, 
so  far  as  the  author  is  aware,  to  publish  a  journal  devoted  solely 
to  vegetable -gardening  interests], 

MARSHALL,  CHARLES. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  KNOWLEDGE  AND  PRACTICE  OF  GAR- 
DENING; first  American  from  the  second  London  edition,  con- 
siderably enlarged  and  improved.  To  which  is  added  an 
essay  on  quick-lime,  by  James  Anderson.  Vol.  I.  Boston, 
1799.  [n.  c.]  Samuel  Etheridge.  pp.  ii  +  276.  7x4^. 

MCNEIL,  j.  w. 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES.  Hazlehurst,  Miss.  1888.  [if.  c.] 
Copiah  Signal  print,  pp.21.  9x5%. 

M'MAHON,  BERNARD. 

THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER'S  CALENDAR;  adapted  to  the  climates 
and  seasons  of  the  United  States.  Containing  a  complete  ac- 
count of  all  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in  the  kitchen-gar- 
den, fruit -garden,  orchard,  vineyard, nursery, pleasure-grounds, 
flower-garden,  greenhouse,  hothouse,  and  forcing-frames,  for 
every  month  in  the  year ;  with  ample  practical  directions  for 
performing  the  same.  Also,  general  as  well  as  minute  instruc- 
tions for  laying  out,  or  erecting,  each  and  every  of  the  above 
departments,  according  to  modern  taste  and  the  most  approved 
plans  ;  the  ornamental  planting  of  pleasure-grounds,  in  the 
ancient  arid  modern  style;  the  cultivation  of  thorn -quicks  and 
other  plants  suitable  for  live  hedges,  with  the  best  meth- 
ods of  making  them,  etc.  To  which  are  annexed  extensive 
catalogues  of  the  different  kinds  of  plants  which  may  be  cul- 
tivated either  for  use  or  ornament  in  the  several  departments, 
or  in  rural  economy;  divided  into  eighteen  separate  alphabeti- 
cal classes,  according  to  their  habits,  duration,  and  modes  of 
culture;  with  explanatory  introductions,  marginal  marks,  and 
their  true  Linnsean  or  botanical,  as  well  as  English  names; 
together  with  a  copious  index  to  the  body  of  the  work.  Phila- 
delphia. 1806.  [c.  30th  year  of  the  independence  of  the  U. 
S.]  B.  Graves,  pp.  v  +  666.  8%x5%. 


Books  257 

THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER'S  CALENDAR;  adapted  to  the  climates 
and  seasons  of  the  United  States.  Containing  a  complete 
account  of  all  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in  the  kitchen- 
garden,  fruit-garden,  orchard,  vineyard,  nursery,  pleasure- 
grounds,  flower-garden,  greenhouse,  hothouse,  and  forcing- 
frames,  for  every  month  in  the  year;  with  ample  practical 
directions  for  performing  the  same.  Also,  general  as  well  as 
minute  instructions  for  laying  out,  or  erecting,  each  and  every 
of  the  above  departments,  according  to  modern  taste  and  the 
most  approved  plans;  the  ornamental  planting  of  pleasure- 
grounds,  in  the  ancient  and  modern  style  ;  the  cultivation  of 
thorn-quicks  and  other  plants  suitable  for  live  hedges,  with 
the  best  methods  of  making  them,  etc.  To  which  are  an- 
nexed catalogues  of  kitchen-garden  plants  and  herbs;  aro- 
matic, pot  and  sweet  herbs;  medicinal  plants;  and  the  most 
important  grasses,  etc.,  used  in  rural  economy,  with  the  soil 
best  adapted  to  their  cultivation;  together  with  a  copious  in- 
dex to  the  body  of  the  work.  Fourth  edition,  improved. 
Philadelphia.  1820.  [c.  1819.]  T.  P.  M'Mahon.  pp.618. 


THE  AMERICAN  GARDENER'S  CALENDAR;  adapted  to  the  climates 
and  seasons  of  the  United  States.  Containing  a  complete 
account  of  all  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in  the  kitchen  - 
garden,  fruit-garden,  flower  -garden,  orchard,  pleasure  -grounds, 
vineyard,  nursery,  greenhouse,  hothouse,  and  forcing-frames, 
for  every  month  in  the  year;  with  practical  directions  and 
copious  index.  Eleventh  edition,  with  a  memoir  of  the  author, 
revised  and  illustrated  under  the  supervision  of  J.  Jay  Smith. 
Philadelphia.  1857.  [c.  1857.]  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.  pp. 
ix-j-637. 


MITCHELL,  S.  H. 

TOMATO  -GROWING  FOR  PROFIT;  being  a  practical  treatise  show- 
ing in  detail  how  to  grow  tomatoes  by  new  methods  ;  from  the 
sowing  of  the  seed  to  the  marketing  of  the  crop,  so  as  to  leave 
when  sold  the  largest  amount  of  profit  to  the  producer,  the 
whole  being  the  result  of  over  thirty  years'  extensive  practical 
experience  by  the  author.  Toronto.  1895.  [n.c.]  Dudley 
&  Burns,  pp.  24.  9>£x6>£. 


258         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

MUNRO,  NORMAN  L.,  Publisher. 

See  "How  to  Grow  Fruit,  Flowers  and  Vegetables." 
NEILL,  PATRICK. 

THE  FRUIT,  FLOWER,  AND  KITCHEN  GARDEN.  Adapted  to  the 
United  States,  from  the  fourth  edition,  revised  and  improved 
by  the  author.  Illustrated.  Philadelphia.  1851.  fc.  1851.] 
Henry  Carey  Baird.  pp.  ix  +  427.  7%x4%. 

THE  PRACTICAL  FRUIT,  FLOWER  AND  VEGETABLE  GARDENER'S 
COMPANION,  with  a  calendar;  adapted  to  the  United  States 
from  the  fourth  edition,  revised  and  improved  by  the  author. 
Edited  by  G.  Emerson.  With  notes  and  additions  by  R.  G. 
Pardee.  With  elegant  illustrations.  New  York.  1858. 
[c.  1855.]  A.O.Moore.,  pp.  xiv  +  408.  7%x5%. 

NIVEN,  ROBERT,  and  Others. 

THE  NEW  CELERY  CULTURE;  no  banking  up  required.  The 
practice  of  practical  men.  Illustrated.  New  York.  1892. 
[c.  1892.]  The  Eural  Publishing  Co.  pp.  29.  7%x5. 
[The  Eural  Library,  Vol.  I,  No.  7.  May.] 

OEMLER,  A. 

TRUCK-FARMING  AT  THE  SOUTH;  a  guide  to  the  raising  of  vege- 
tables for  northern  markets.  Illustrated.  New  York.  1884. 
[c.  1883.]  Orange  Judd  Co.  pp.270.  7%x5%. 

OLCOTT,  HENRY  S.,  Editor. 

See  Eoessle,  Theophilus.  "How  to  Cultivate  and  Preserve 
Celery." 

ONION  BOOK,  THE.  A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Profitable  Culture 
of  the  Crop.  By  some  twenty  experienced  growers.  Illustr. 
New  and  greatly  enlarged  edition.  New  York.  n.  d. 
[c.  1887].  Orange  Judd  Co.  pp.  36.  10x6%. 

PEDERSEN,  J.,  (BJERGAARD)  and  HOWARD,  G.  H. 

How  TO  GROW  CABBAGES  AND  CAULIFLOWERS  MOST  PROFITABLY. 
Illustrated.  Edited  by  W.  Atlee  Burpee,  Philadelphia.  1888. 
[e.  1888.]  W.  Atlee  Burpee  &  Co.  pp.  v-f-85. 


Books  259 

PRACTICAL  AMERICAN  GARDENER,  THE;  exhibiting  the  time  for 
every  kind  of  work  in  the  kitchen-garden,  fruit-garden, 
orchard,  nursery,  shrubbery,  pleasure-ground,  flower-garden, 
hop-yard,  greenhouse,  hothouse  and  grape  vines  for  every 
month  in  the  year.  By  an  old  Gardener.  Baltimore.  1822. 
[c.  43d  year  of  the  independence  of  the  U.  S.]  Fielding  Lucas, 
Jr.  pp.xii-f  4.24.  5%s.3%. 

PRICE,  R.  H. 

SWEET  POTATO  CULTURE  FOR  PROFIT;  a  full  account  of  the  ori- 
gin, history  and  botanical  characteristics  of  the  sweet  potato. 
Illustrated.  Full  and  complete  instructions  from  how  to  grow 
the  plants  to  harvesting  and  storing  the  crop  for  both  southern 
and  northern  latitudes.  Complete  discussion  of  the  diseases 
and  insects  which  injure  the  crop.  A  description  of  47  varie- 
ties, with  a  new  system  of  classifying  them.  The  Chinese 
yam  and  the  vineless  variety  are  discussed.  Latest  improved 
machinery  discussed,  etc.  Dallas,  Texas,  n.  d.  [c.  1896.] 
Texas  Farm  and  Ranch  Publishing  Co.  pp.  110.  8%x5%. 

PROVANCHER,  L'ABBE  L. 

LE  VERGER;  Le  potager  et  le  parterre  dans  la  Province  de 
Quebec,  ou  culture  raisonne"e  des  fruits,  legumes  et  fleurs 
qui  peuvent  pe"ussir  sous  le  climat  de  Quebec.  Ouvrage 
orne"  de  nombreuse.s  gravures  sur  bois.  Quebec.  C.  Darveau. 
1881.  [Preface  dated  1874.]  pp.332.  6%x4^. 

QU1NN,  P.  T. 

MONEY  IN  THE  GARDEN  ;  A  vegetable  manual  prepared  with  a 
view  to  economy  and  profit.  Illustr.  New  York.  1871. 
[c.1871].  Tribune  Assoc.  pp.x  +  268.  7%x5.  [Later  pub. 
by  Orange  Judd  Co.] 

RAWSON,  W.  W. 

CELERY  AND  ITS  CULTIVATION.  Revised  edition.  Illustr.  Bos- 
ton. 1900.  [c.  1891.  1900].  W.  W.  Rawson.  pp.  24. 
7^x5. 

SUCCESS  IN  MARKET -GARDENING  ;  AND  VEGETABLE  GROWERS' 
MANUAL.  Illustrated.  Boston.  1887.  [c.  1887.]  Published 
by  the  author,  pp.  iv  +  208. 


260         The   Principles   of   Vegetable  -  Gardening 

ROE,  E.  P. 

PLAY  AND  PROFIT  IN  MY  GARDEN.      [New  ed.]      New   York. 
1893.     [c.  1886.]     Orange  Judd  Co.     pp.349. 


ROESSLE,  THEOPHILUS. 

How  TO  CULTIVATE  AND  PRESERVE  CELERY.  Edited,  with  a 
preface,  by  Henry  S.  Olcott.  Colored  plates.  Albany.  1860. 
[c.  I860.]  Theophilus  Eoessle,  Delavan  House,  New  York; 
C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  pp.  xxvi  +  102. 


ROLFS,  P.  H. 

VEGETABLE  -GROWING  IN  THE  SOUTH  FOR  NORTHERN  MARKETS; 
being  concise  directions  for  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  use 
and  amounts  of  fertilizers,  and  the  planting  of  vegetable  crops 
to  obtain  the  earliest  vegetables:  also  the  best  methods  of 
packing  for  shipping,  the  raising  of  seed  for  market,  and 
preserving  it  for  home  use.  Illustrated.  Richmond.  1896. 
[c.  1896.]  The  Southern  Planter  Publishing  Co.  pp.  xi  + 
255.  7%x5. 

ROOT,  A.  I. 

See  Day,  J.  W.     "Tomato  Culture." 

SCHENCK,  PETER  ADAM. 

THE  GARDENER'S  TEXT-BOOK  ;  containing  practical  directions 
upon  the  formation  and  management  of  the  kitchen-garden, 
and  for  the  culture  and  domestic  use  of  its  vegetables,  fruits, 
and  medicinal  herbs.  Illustrated.  New  York.  1860.  [c.  1851.] 
C.  M.  Saxton,  Barker  &  Co.  pp.  306.  6x4. 

SHINN,  CHAS.  H. 

PACIFIC  RURAL  HAND-BOOK;  containing  a  series  of  brief  and 
practical  essays  and  notes  on  the  culture  of  trees,  vegetables 
and  flowers,  adapted  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Also  hints  on  home 
and  farm  improvements.  San  Francisco,  n.  d.  [c.  1879.] 
Dewey  &  Co.  Pacific  Rural  Press,  pp.122.  7/^x4%. 

STEWART,  HENRY. 

IRRIGATION  FOR  THE  FARM,  GARDEN  AND  ORCHARD.  With 
numerous  illustrations.  New  York.  1883.  [c.  1877.]  Orange 
Judd  Co.  pp.  264.  7%x5. 


Books  261 

STEWART,  HOMER  L. 

CELERY  GROWING  AND  MARKETING  A  SUCCESS.  With  portrait  of 
the  author;  also  illustrated  with  13  plates,  showing  new  tools 
and  appliances  in  celery  culture  and  the  care  of  the  crop. 
This  is  the  only  book  ever  written  which  covers  the  whole 
period  of  growing,  marketing  and  caring  for  the  crop,  with 
explicit  directions.  Tecumseh,  Mich.  1891.  [c.  1891.]  The 
Blade  Printing  and  Paper  Co.  pp.  151.  7%x5%. 

TERRY,  T.  B. 

THE  A  B  C  OF  POTATO  CULTURE.  How  to  grow  them  in  the 
largest  quantity,  and  of  the  finest  quality,  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  time  and  labor.  Carefully  considering  all  the 
latest  improvements  in  this  branch  of  agriculture  up  to  the 
present  date.  Illustrated  by  twenty  engravings.  Medina, 
Ohio.  1885.  A.  I.  Root.  pp.  42 -f  8.  10x6%. 

THOMPSON,  FRED.  S. 

RHUBARB  OR  PIE-PLANT  CULTURE.  Illustrated.  The  best 
varieties.  Essential  points  in  growing  good  rhubarb.  How 
rhubarb  pays,  compared  with  certain  crops.  The  first  and 
only  edition  on  this  subject.  Milwaukee,  Wis.  1894.  [c.1894.] 
J.  N.  Yewdale  &  Sons  Co.  pp.  76.  7>£x5. 

THORBURN,  GRANT. 

THE  GENTLEMAN  AND  GARDENER'S  KALENDAR;  containing  ample 
directions  for  the  cultivation  of  the  kitchen  and  flower  garden, 
greenhouse,  nursery,  orchard,  etc.,  for  the  United  States  of 
America,  3d  ed.,  corrected  and  improved.  Price,  50  cents. 
Ving.  t.  p.  New  York.  1821.  [c.  in  the  36th  year  of  the 
independence  of  U.  S.  A.]  B.  Young,  pp.  132.  7x4>£. 

TILLINGHAST,  ISAAC  F. 

A  MANUAL  OF  VEGETABLE  PLANTS;  containing  the  experiences 
of  the  author  in  starting  all  those  kinds  of  vegetables  which 
are  most  difficult  for  a  novice  to  produce  from  seeds,  with  the 
best  methods  known  for  combating  and  repelling  noxious 
insects,  and  preventing  the  diseases  to  which  garden  vege- 
tables are  subject.  Factoryville,  Pa.  1878.  [c.  1877.]  Til- 
linghast  Brothers,  pp.102.  6%x4%. 


264         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Oar  den  ing 

also  abstracts  of  the  leading  articles,  he  should  consult 
the  Experiment  Station  Record,  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

ALABAMA. 

No.  77.     Some  insect  pests. 

No.  79.     Some  horticultural  suggestions. 

No.  84.     Turnips. 

No.  86.     Insecticides,  etc. 

No.  108.  Tomatoes. 

ARKANSAS. 

No.  44.     Vegetable -gardening. 

No.  50.     Some  Irish  potato  experiments. 

No.  56.     Tomatoes,  cabbage  and  onions. 

ARIZONA. 

No.  32.     Some  insect   pests   of    Salt   River    valley,    and  the 

remedies  for  them. 
No.  35.     Vegetable -growing  in  southern  Arizona. 

COLORADO. 

No.  41.     Blight  and  other  plant  diseases. 

No.  47.     Colorado's  worst  insect  pests  and  their  remedies. 

CONNECTICUT  (State). 

No.  125.  Preparation  and  application  of  fungicides. 

No.  126.  Insecticides,  their  preparation  and  use;  annual  re- 
ports ;  various  articles. 
DELAWARE. 

No.  34.     Treatment  of  plant  diseases  in  1896. 

No.  41.     Pea  canning  in  Delaware. 
FLORIDA. 

No.  45.     Three    injurious    insects:       Bean    leaf-roller,    corn 
delphax,  canna  leaf-roller. 

No.  46.     Strawberry  thrips  and  onion  thrips. 

No.  47.     Diseases  of  the  tomato. 

No.  48.     Insect  enemies  of  the  tobacco. 
GEORGIA. 

No.  38.    Watermelons. 

No.  45.     Some  important  insect  enemies  of  cucurbits. 


Bulletins   1897-99 


265 


IDAHO. 
No.  17. 


Construction  and  management  of  hotbeds. 


INDIANA. 

No.  65.  Formalin  for  prevention  of  potato  scab, 

No.  66.  Indoor  lettuce  culture. 

No.  69.  Insects,  fungicides  and  spraying. 

IOWA. 

No.  34.  Home  propagation. 

No.  36.  Seed  testing. 

No.  42.  Potato  scab. 


KANSAS. 
No.  70. 
No.  82. 
No.  86 

KENTUCKY. 

No.  72. 
No.  81. 

LOUISIANA 
No.  48. 
No.  52. 


Vegetable  -  growing . 
Potato-stalk  weevil. 

( Press  bulletins  1-34 ).    Celery,  seed-breeding,  potato- 
stalk  weevil,  potato  scab. 

Potatoes. 

A    method   of    avoiding    lettuce    rot.      Potato    scab 
experiments. 

Report  of  entomologist. 

Report  of  horticultural  department  for  1896  and  1897. 


MAINE. 

No.  36.  Testing  seeds  (Maine  law,  etc.). 

No.  40.  Celery. 

No.  52.  The  spraying  of  plants. 

See  also  articles  in  annual  reports. 

MARYLAND. 

No.  46.  Corn  and  potato  experiments. 

No.  48.  Some  common  injurious  plant  lice,  etc. 

No.  50.  Rust  and  leopard  spot  of  asparagus. 

No.  54.  Tomatoes. 

No.  59.  Sweet  potato  insects. 

No.  60.  Some  diseases  of  the  sweet  potato. 

No.  62.  Experiments  with  wheat,  corn  and  potatoes. 


264         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

also  abstracts  of  the  leading  articles,  he  should  consult 
the  Experiment  Station  Record,  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

ALABAMA. 

No.  77.     Some  insect  pests. 

No.  79.     Some  horticultural  suggestions. 

No.  84.     Turnips. 

No.  86.     Insecticides,  etc. 

No.  108.  Tomatoes. 

ARKANSAS. 

No.  44.     Vegetable-gardening. 

No.  50.     Some  Irish  potato  experiments. 

No.  56.     Tomatoes,  cabbage  and  onions. 

ARIZONA. 

No.  32.     Some  insect   pests    of    Salt   River    valley,    and  the 

remedies  for  them. 
No.  35.     Vegetable -growing  in  southern  Arizona. 

COLORADO. 

No.  41.     Blight  and  other  plant  diseases. 

No.  47.     Colorado's  worst  insect  pests  and  their  remedies. 

CONNECTICUT  (State). 

No.  125.  Preparation  and  application  of  fungicides. 

No.  126.  Insecticides,  their  preparation  and  use;  annual  re- 
ports; various  articles. 
DELAWARE. 

No.  34.     Treatment  of  plant  diseases  in  1896. 

No.  41.     Pea  canning  in  Delaware. 
FLORIDA. 

No.  45.     Three    injurious    insects:       Bean    leaf -roller,    corn 
delphax,  canna  leaf -roller. 

No.  46.     Strawberry  thrips  and  onion  thrips. 

No.  47.     Diseases  of  the  tomato. 

No.  48.     Insect  enemies  of  the  tobacco. 
GEORGIA. 

No.  38.     Watermelons. 

No.  45.     Some  important  insect  enemies  of  cucurbits. 


Bulletins   1897-99 


265 


IDAHO. 

No.  17. 


Construction  and  management  of  hotbeds. 


INDIANA. 

No.  65.  Formalin  for  prevention  of  potato  scab. 

No.  66.  Indoor  lettuce  culture. 

No.  69.  Insects,  fungicides  and  spraying. 

IOWA. 

No.  34.  Home  propagation. 

No.  36.  Seed  testing. 

No.  42.  Potato  scab. 


KANSAS. 
No.  70. 
No.  82. 
No.  86 

KENTUCKY. 
No.  72. 
No.  81. 

LOUISIANA 
No.  48. 
No.  52. 


Vegetable -growing. 
Potato -stalk  weevil. 

( Press  bulletins  1-34).    Celery,  seed-breeding,  potato- 
stalk  weevil,  potato  scab. 

Potatoes. 

A    method   of    avoiding   lettuce    rot.     Potato    scab 
experiments. 

Report  of  entomologist. 

Report  of  horticultural  department  for  1896  and  1897. 


MAINE. 

No.  36.  Testing  seeds  (Maine  law,  etc.). 

No.  40.  Celery. 

No.  52.  The  spraying  of  plants. 

See  also  articles  in  annual  reports. 

MARYLAND. 

No.  46.  Corn  and  potato  experiments. 

No.  48.  Some  common  injurious  plant  lice,  etc. 

No.  50.  Rust  and  leopard  spot  of  asparagus. 

No.  54.  Tomatoes. 

No.  59.  Sweet  potato  insects. 

No.  60.  Some  diseases  of  the  sweet  potato. 

No.  62.  Experiments  with  wheat,  corn  and  potatoes. 


266         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

MASSACHUSETTS  (Hatch). 

No.  43.     Electro -germination. 

No.  44.     Tests  of  vegetable  seeds. 

No.  55.     Nematode  worms. 

No.  60.     Insecticides,  fungicides,  spraying  calendar. 

No.  61.    Asparagus  rust  in  Massachusetts. 

See  also  articles  in  annual  reports. 
MICHIGAN. 

No.  144.  Vegetables — old  and  new. 

No.  153.  Vegetable  tests— 1897. 

No.  160.  Some  insects  of  the  year  1897. 

No.  170.  Vegetable  tests  for  1898. 

No.  175.  Some  insects  of  the  year  1898. 

Special  bulletin  12.     Spraying  calendar. 
MINNESOTA. 

No.  52.     Potatoes— variety  test  in  1896  and  implements. 

No.  55.     Grasshoppers,  locusts,  crickets,  etc.,  of  Minnesota. 

No.  64.     Migratory  locusts  or  grasshoppers. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

No.  41.     Colorado  potato  beetle  in  Mississippi 

No.  54.     Irish  potato  culture. 
MISSOURI. 

No.  43.     Asparagus  culture  in  Missouri.     Winter  forcing  of 
asparagus  in  the  open  field. 

No.  47.     Tarnished  plant  bug. 
NEBRASKA. 

No.  52.     Corn-stalk  disease. 
NEVADA. 

No.  36.     Some  common  injurious  insects  of  western  Nevada. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

No.  41.     Potatoes. 

No.  42.     Tomatoes  and  tomato  breeding. 

No.  45.     (Potato  scab)  Fruit  and  potato  diseases. 

No.  51.     Sweet  corn  for  New  Hampshire. 

No.  52.     Muskmelons. 

No.  60.     Green  corn  under  glass. 

No.  62.     Forcing  pole  beans  under  glass. 

No.  63.     Third  potato  report. 


Bulletins   1897-99  267 

NEW  JERSEY. 

No.  120.  Field  experiments  with  potatoes  for  1896. 

No.  121.  Harlequin  cabbage  bug  and  melon  plant  louse. 

No.  129.  Asparagus  rust. 

19th  Ann.  Rept.    Peas,  beans,  tomatoes,  Lima  beans,  etc.     In 
botanical  section,  fungous  diseases. 

No.  138.  Crude  petroleum  as  an  insecticide.    Annual  reports, 

various  articles. 
NEW  MEXICO. 

No.  20.     Seeds. 

NEW  YORK  (Geneva). 

No.  119.  Downy  mildew  of  cucumber. 

No.  120.  Fighting  cutworms  in  onion  fields. 

No.  121.  Spray  pumps  and  spraying. 

No.  123.  Spraying  potatoes  on  Long  Island,  season  of  1896. 

No.  130.  A  bacterial  disease  of  sweet  corn. 

No.  137.  Commercial  fertilizers  for  potatoes. 

No.  138.  Experiments  and  observations  on  some  diseases  of 
plants. 

No.  139.  Plant  lice. 

No.  143.  Green  arsenite. 

No.  144.  A  spraying  mixture  for  cauliflower  and  cabbage  worms. 

No.  146.  Some  experiments  in  forcing  head  lettuce. 

No.  154.  Commercial  fertilizers  for  potatoes. 

No.  156.  Spraying  cucumbers  in  the  season  of  1898. 

No.  158.  Combating  the  striped  beetle  on  cucumbers. 

No.  121.  Appendix — spray    pumps    and    spraying.       Annual 

reports,  various  articles. 
NEW  YORK  (Cornell). 

No.  130.  Potato  culture. 

No.  132.  Notes  upon  celery. 

No.  140.  Second  report  on  potato  culture. 

No.  144.  Notes  on  spraying. 

No.  149.  Some  spraying  mixtures. 

No.  156.  Third  report  on  potato  culture. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

No.  147.  A  study  of  lettuces. 

No.  159.  Horticultural  experiments  at  Southern  Pines,  1896. 


268         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 

No.  30.     Preliminary  report  upon  the  selection  of  potatoes  for 

planting. 

No.  36.     A  study  of  the  root  systems  of  corn  and  potatoes. 
No.  37.     Prevention  of  potato  scab. 

OHIO. 

No.  76.     Potatoes. 

No.  77.     Chinch  bug,  etc. 

No.  89.  Prevalent  diseases  of  cucumbers,  melons  and  toma- 
toes. 

No.  96.     Army  worm  and  other  insects. 

No.  102.  Seed  and  soil  treatment  and  spray  calendar. 

No.  105.  Further  studies  of  cucumber,  melon  and  tomato  dis- 
eases, with  experiments. 

No.  106.  Experiments  with  insecticides. 

OREGON. 

No.  48.     Spraying. 
No.  49.     Paris  green. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

No.  39.     Potatoes.     Annual  reports — various  articles. 

RHODE  ISLAND 

No.  43.     Additional  tests  of  garden  seeds. 
No.  44.     Celery. 

No.  52.     Suggestions  as  to  spraying. 
No.  55.     Forcing  rhubarb. 

1897.  Report — Garden  lettuce  and  its  cultivation;  classi- 
fication and  description  of  varieties  of  garden  let- 
tuce ;  asparagus  rust. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

No.  28.     The  sweet  potato  as  a  starch  producer. 

No.  36.     Diseases  of  plants. 

No.  38.     Asparagus  rust  in  South  Carolina. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

No.  57.    Injurious  insects. 

No.  59.    Forage  and  garden  crops  in  the  James  river  valley. 

No.  61.     Forage  and  garden  crops  in  the  James  river  valley. 


Bulletins   1897-99  269 

TENNESSEE. 

Vol.  X,  No.  2.     Pot  culture  of  lettuce. 

TEXAS 

No.  42.     The  Irish  potato. 

UTAH. 

No.  49.     Spraying. 

VERMONT. 

No.  60.     Insects  of  the  year.     Clubroot  and  black  rot  of  cab- 
bage and  turnip. ' 
No.  72.     Certain  potato  diseases  and  their  remedies. 

VIRGINIA. 

No.  92.     The   influence    of   commercial    fertilizers   upon    the 

quality  of  the  Irish  potato. 
WASHINGTON. 

No.  27.     A  few  facts  about  insects. 

No.  35.     Miscellaneous  injurious  insects. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

No.  49.     Vegetables. 

Folio  spray  calendar  1898. 
WISCONSIN. 

No.  65.     A  bacterial  rot  of  cabbage  and  allied  plants.      An- 
nual reports — various  articles. 
WYOMING. 

No.  32.     Potatoes. 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Farmer's  Bulletins. 
No.  61.    Asparagus  culture. 
No.  62.     Marketing  farm  produce. 
No.  68.     Black  rot  of  cabbage. 

No.  73.    Experiment  Station  Work  IV.     Seed  selection. 
No.  76.     Tomato-growing. 
No.  84.     Experiment  Station  Work  VII.      Forcing   asparagus 

in  the  field. 
No.  91.     Potato  diseases  and  their  treatment. 


270         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

No.  92.  Experiment  Station  Work  IX.  Improved  culture  of 
potato. 

No.  94.     The  vegetable  garden. 

No.  105.  Experiment  Station  Work  XII.  Fertilizers  for  gar- 
den crops;  sweet  corn  and  pole  beans  under  glass. 

No.  107.  Experiment  Station  Work  XIII.     Forcing  rhubarb. 

Office  of  Experiment  Station  Bulletins. 

No.  57.     Varieties  of  corn.  (E.  L.  Sturtevant.) 
No.  68.     A  description  of  some  Chinese  vegetable  food  mate- 
rials. 

Division  of  Entomology. 

No.  23.  New  series.  Some  insects  injurious  to  garden  crops 
(1900). 


CHAPTER  IX 

ROOT  CROPS 

Radish, 

Parsnip, 

Beet, 

Salsify, 

Carrot, 

Scorzonera, 

Chervil, 

Scolymus, 

Turnip, 

Horse-radish. 

Rutabaga, 

Root  crops  require  a  cool  season  and  deep  soil.  They 
are  grown  in  drills,  and  usually  are  not  transplanted. 
They  are  used  both  as  main-season  and  secondary  crops. 
All  are  hardy.  No  special  skill  is  required  in  growing 
them. 

The  necessity  of  deep  soil  is  apparent  when  one  con- 
siders that  the  value  of  a  root  depends  to  a  large  extent 
on  its  straightness  or  symmetry.  In  hard  and  shallow 
soils  roots  are  short  and  they  tend  to  be  branched  and 
irregular.  Fine  tilth  does  much  to  insure  quick  growth, 
and  quick  growth  improves  the  quality.  Tile -draining 
and  subsoiling  greatly  improve  land  that  is  to  be  used 
for  root  crops.  The  use  of  clover  as  a  green  manure  is 
also  desirable,  as  it  loosens  and  ameliorates  the  soil  to  a 
greater  depth  than  most  other  green -manure  crops. 

Most  root  crops  succeed  best  in  cool  soil.  They 
thrive  in  the  North,  or  in  the  cool  season  in  the 
South.  Those  that  do  not  require  the  entire  season 

(271) 


272         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

in  which  to  complete  their  growth  usually  thrive  best 
in  spring  and  fall. 

Root  crops  are  of  two  general  classes  as  respects 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  grown — fodder  crops 
and  vegetable -gardening  crops.  The  former  are  not 
intended  here  ;  neither  are  sugar  beets.  Most  of  the 
vegetable-gardening  root  crops  are  able  to  secure  their 
food  from  relatively  unavailable  combinations,  and  they 
generally  use  rather  freely  of  potash,  although  they  are 
also  heavy  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  feeders.  In  order 
to  start  them  quickly,  a  light  dressing  of  some  available 
nitrogen  compound  is  useful,  particularly  if  the  roots 
are  needed. for  a  particular  season.  Voorhees  writes* 
that  these  crops,  as  a  class,  are  much  more  exhaustive 
of  the  plant -food  elements  than  the  cereals  and  legumes. 

Probably  the  most  laborious  part  of  the  growing  of 
root  crops  is  the  harvesting,  particularly  of  the  long 
late  kinds.  This  labor  is  much  lessened  by  plowing  out 
the  roots.  Even  if  the  roots  are  too  deep  for  the  plow, 
two  or  three  furrows  may  be  thrown  from  either  side 
of  the  row,  and  the  pulling  is  made  easier.  Usually, 
however,  hand-pulling  is  unnecessary.  As  soon  as  the 
roots  are  out  the  tops  should  be  cut  off  about  an  inch 
above  the  crown,  if  the  crop  is  to  be  stored  or  sold  in 
bulk.  The  roots  should  lie  in  the  sun  until  the  soil  is 
dry  enough  to  shake  from  them,  when  they  may  be 
stored  in  the  pit  or  cellar  or  sent  to  the  market.  They 
are  easy  to  keep. 

The  market  value  of  a  root  depends  largely  on  its 
looks.  All  strong  side  roots  should  be  cut  off,  and 

*  Fertilizers,  p.  257. 


Root    Crops— Radish  273 

branchy  specimens  should  be  discarded.  Early  in  the 
season,  such  roots  as  beet,  carrot,  radish,  and  turnip 
are  sold  in  bunches  of  6  to  12;  but  as  the  season  ad- 
vances and  prices  fall,  they  are  sold  in  bulk.  When 
sold  in  bunches,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  all  the 
specimens  in  the  bunch  of  uniform  size  and  shape.  The 
leaves  are  allowed  to  remain,  and  the  bunches  are  tied 
neatly  by  a  cord  passed  around  the  leaf -stalks.  The 
bunches  should  be  kept  well  sprinkled  and  away  from 
the  sun,  for  wilted  leaves  give  them  a  stale  and  unat- 
tractive appearance. 

Special  literature :  Gregory,  "Carrots,  Mangold  Wurtzels  and 
Sugar  Beets,"  Burpee,  "Root  Crops  for  Stock  Feeding  and  How 
to  Grow  Them." 

RADISH 

Quick  and  continuous  growth,  rather  cool  weather, 
protection  from  the  root  maggot  —  these  are  prime  con- 
siderations in  the  growing  of  radishes.  The  radish  is 
a  partial  season  crop.  It  is  easy  to  grow. 

In  America  the  radish  is  known  mostly  as  a  spring 
crop,  although  it  is  sometimes  grown  in  the  fall.  In 
the  Old  World,  however,  it  is  known  also  as  a  summer 
crop,  but  the  varieties  grown  in  the  hot  weather  are  usu- 
ally unlike  those  raised  in  the  spring  and  fall.  There 
are  three  general  types  of  radishes  :  the  ordinary  small 
spring  or  fall  radish,  usually  light  red  or  clear  white; 
the  large  turnip  radishes,  useful  for  summer  cultiva- 
tion, and  which  are  white,  gray  or  black;  the  winter 
radishes,  which  make  a  long,  hard,  woody  root  that  is 
red,  white  or  black  in  color.  The  winter  radishes  are 


274         The    Principles  of  Vegetable -Gardening 

relatively  little  grown  here.  They  are  said  to  be  popu- 
lar in  China  and  Japan.  They  are  usually  sown  late 
in  the  season,  as  late  turnips  are,  and  the  roots  may 
be  kept  over  winter  as  other  roots  are  kept. 

Radishes  are  usually  treated  as  a  companion -crop 
when  grown  in  the  open  field.  They  may  be  sown  in 
drills  between  the  rows  of  cabbages,  peas  or  other 
later- maturing  vegetables.  Sometimes  they  are  sown 


Fig.  61.     Seedlings  of  radish.    Nearly  natural  size. 

directly  in  the  drill  with  the  other  vegetables.  The 
seeds  are  quick  to  germinate  and  thereby  break  the 
crust  and  mark  the  row  and  thus  facilitate  tillage,  and 
the  roots  may  be  harvested  before  the  other  crops  need 
the  space.  For  family  use,  radishes  are  often  grown 
in  beds  by  themselves.  In  clean,  friable  land  they  are 
sometimes  sown  broadcast.  If  the  soil  is  loose  and 
rich,  radishes  should  come  to  edible  maturity  in  four 
to  six  weeks.  The  roots  are  of  better  quality  when  they 
are  relatively  small  and  crisp.  When  growth  ceases  the 
roots  become  stringy,  bitter  and  often  hollow.  Sow  at 


Radish 


'275 


frequent  intervals  for  a  succession.    Radishes  are  easily 
grown  in  hotbeds. 

If  radishes  are  to  be  grown  during  the  hot  weather, 
the  soil  should  be  as  cool  as  possible  and  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  moisture 
in  order  to  keep  them  grow- 
ing continuously.  Radishes 
do  not  come  to  their  full  per- 
fection in  soil  that  is  hard 
and  dry.  The  roots  are  so 
small  and  short  that  the 
plants  are  essentially  sur- 
face feeders.  Radishes  are 
marketed  in  bunches  (Fig. 
62). 

The  seeds  of  radishes 
are  large  and  germinate 
quickly.  Better  roots  and 
a  more  uniform  crop  are 
secured  by  sowing  only  the  large  seeds.  The  small 
ones  may  be  sifted  out  by  means  of  a  hand  screen. 

The  root  maggot  can  be  destroyed  by  injecting  bi- 
sulfide of  carbon  into  the  ground  about  the  plants  (see 
Cabbage) ;  but  this  operation  is  so  expensive  and 
troublesome  in  comparison  with  the  value  of  the 
plants  that  it  is  not  to  be  advised.  The  best  alterna- 
tive is  to  grow  the  plants  on  land  in  which  the  maggot 
has  not  been  breeding.  If  the  whole  garden  is  infested 
with  the  root  maggot,  it  is  advisable  to  cease  growing 
radishes  and  related  crops  until  the  maggots  have  been 
starved  out.  There  are  no  other  very  serious  pests. 


Fig.  62.    Early  spring  radishes. 


276         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

Radishes  are  usually  sown  as  early  in  spring  as  the  ground  is 
fit,  even  before  frosts  are  past.  Sow  in  rows  6  to  12  inches  apart, 
or  farther  apart  if  a  wheel  hoe  is  to  be  used.  Cover  /£  inch.  Thin  to 
2  or  3  inches  apart.  For  family  use,  sow  at  intervals  of  7  to  10  days. 
As  the  season  advances,  select  a  cooler  site,  as  a  northern  expo- 
sure. Usually  the  sowings  are  discontinued  from  the  last  of  June 
until  late  August.  One  ounce  of  seed  sows  100  feet  or  more  of 
drill ;  8  to  10  Ibs.  is  required  for  an  acre. 

The  most  popular  variety  is  French  Breakfast.  Other  good 
kinds  are  Olive-shaped,  Scarlet  Short-top,  Chartier,  Wood  Early 
Frame,  White  Box.  For  summer,  good  varieties  are  White  Naples, 
White  Vienna,  Strasburg,  Stuttgart.  For  winter,  Scarlet  Chinese, 
Black  Spanish,  White  Spanish  may  be  mentioned. 

The  radish  is  an  annual ;  or  the  roots  may  be  kept  over  winter 
and  planted  out  in  the  spring,  when  they  will  quickly  run  to  seed. 
Spring  and  summer  radishes  run  to  seed  the  same  season  if  left  in 
the  ground,  but  the  best  seed  is  produced  from  plants  that  are 
transplanted  when  young.  Little  radish  seed  is  grown  in  North 
America,  probably  largely  because  of  the  high  price  of  hand  labor. 

The  radish,  Eaphanus  sativus,  is  one  of  the  Cruciferse  or  Mustard 
family.  It  is  unknown  in  a  wild  state.  It  is  probably  a  devel- 
opment of  the  wild  Charlock,  Eaphanus  Raphanistrum,  which  is  an 
annual  weed  of  the  Old  World  and  is  now  naturalizf  d  in  parts 
of  the  eastern  states.  (Consult  Carriere's  experiments  as  reported 
in  his  pamphlet  "  Origine  des  Plantes  Domestiques  demontree  par 
la  Culture  du  Eadis  Sauvage,"  Paris,  1869.)  The  garden  radish 
occasionally  runs  wild,  when  it  loses  its  thick  root.  For  a  history 
of  the  radish,  see  Sturtevant,  American  Naturalist,  April,  1890,  pp. 
320-326.  For  description  and  classification  of  varieties  of  radish, 
see  Goff,  6th  Rep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.  (for  the  year  1887),  pp. 
146-168.  The  classification  is  based  on  form  and  color  of  root: 

A.  Root  oblate,  spherical  or  top-shaped. 
White. 

Yellow,  light  brown  or  grayish. 
Red. 
Purple. 
Black. 


Radish  —  Beet  277 

AA.  Root  oval. 

(Color  as  above.) 

AAA.  Root  conical  or  cylindri-conical. 
(Color  as  above.) 

The  varieties  were  reduced  to  43  Ly  Goff.  In  1889  (Annals 
Hort.)  81  varieties  were  offered  by  American  seedsmen. 

For  experiments  on  value  of  different  sizes  of  radish  seed,  see 
Galloway,  Agric.  Science,  1894,  p.  557. 

For  recent  discussions  of  insects  and  diseases  see : 

Cabbage  maggot,  Cornell  Bull.  No.  78:  Advises  tarred  paper  or 
bisulfide  carbon. 

Club  root.     See  cabbage. 

White  rust,  N.  J.  Rept.  1890,  p.  350. 

BEET 

A  loose  deep  rich  fresh  relatively  cool  soil  and  a 
continuous  growth  are  the  requisites  in  the  cultivation  of 
garden  beet.  It  is  usually  a  companion-  or  succession- 
crop  in  the  vegetable -gar den.  The  crop  is  hardy  and 
easy  to  raise.  There  are  no  special  difficulties.  The 
round  varieties  are  relatively  surface  feeders  and  early 
in  their  growth.  The  land  should  be  kept  well  tilled  in 
order  to  conserve  the  moisture  and  to  keep  down  weeds, 
particularly  during  the  early  part  of  the  season. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  beets  grown  for  vege- 
table-gardening purposes:  the  short -season  turnip  vari- 
eties, and  the  main -season  long -rooted  varieties.  The 
long- rooted  varieties  are  less  popular  than  a  few  years 
ago,  for  the  turnip  varieties  may  be  grown  in  the  fall 
for  winter  use,  and  fresh  beets  are  to  be  had  from  the 
South  during  the  winter  season.  Formerly  the  long 
blood  beet  was  used  for  stock -feeding  to  some  extent, 


278          The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

but  in  recent  years  the  mangel-wurzel  has  largely  taken 
its  place. 

Vegetable  -  gardeners  now  chiefly  know  the  early 
turnip -rooted  varieties.  These  varieties  may  be  grown 
either  as  a  spring  or  fall  crop.  They  mature  in  two 
to  three  months,  and  roots  large  enough  for  bunching 
of  some  of  the  earliest  varieties  may  be  had  in  six 
weeks  to  two  months.  For  fall  use  these  turnip- 
rooted  beets  may  be  sown  in  July  and  August,  or,  in 
some  places,  even  as  late  as  the  first  of  September. 
When  sown  late  in  the  season,  however,  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  land  should  have  been  well  tilled 
previous  to  sowing,  in  order  that  it  may  not  be  too  dry. 
The  seeds  require  considerable  moisture  in  order  to 
germinate.  This  is  largely  because  the  " seeds'7  are 
really  fruits  with  hard  shells,  each  fruit  containing  from 
two  to  five  small  seeds.  The  husks  or  walls  of  the 
fruit  are  relatively  impervious  to  water.  For  the  reason 
that  the  fruits  rather  than  the  seeds  are  sown,  beets  are 
likely  to  come  up  in  little  clumps,  and  careful  thinning  is 
therefore  essential  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured. 
The  long  or  blood  beets  are  usually  sown  in  early  May 
in  the  northern  states,  and  they  occupy  the  ground  the 
whole  season.  The  early  turnip  varieties  may  be  sown 
as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked  in  spring  if  one 
wishes  to  secure  an  early  crop.  They  may  be  followed 
by  some  later  crop,  as  celery,  late  potatoes,  cabbage  or 
cauliflower.  In  some  cases,  they  are  grown  as  a  com- 
panion-crop in  the  rows  with  some  main -season  crop,  as 
cabbage.  For  very  early  results,  it  is  well  to  sow  the 
early  varieties  in  hotbeds  or  coldframes.  They  may 


Beet 


270 


be  allowed  to  mature  in.  the  frames,  or  in  special  cases 
they  may  be  transplanted  into  beds,  although  trans- 
planting is  rarely  done,  as  it  does  not  pay.  For  home 
use,  two  or  three  rows  fifty  feet  long,  the  seeds  being 
sown  at  intervals  extending  over  a  month,  should  give 
a  sufficient  supply  for  the  spring  and  early  summer. 
Similar  sowings  may  be  made  late  in  the  summer  or 
early  in  the  fall  for  autumn  and  early  winter  use.  The 


Fig.  63.     Seedlings  of  beet.    Natural  size 


firmest  and  best  roots  may  be  stored  for  winter  in  pits 
or  in  the  cellar  in  boxes  of  earth  or  moss. 

Young  beets  are  much  used  for  greens.  They  are 
rarely  grown  especially  for  this  purpose,  but  the  seed 
is  sown  thick  and  the  thinnings  are  sold  in  bunches  or 
in  small  packages.  The  whole  plant,  root  and  top,  is  thus 
used  as  a  pot-herb.  There  are  certain  kinds  of  beett. 
that  produce  thick  leaves  rather  than  roots,  but  these 
are  essentially  leaf  crops  and  are  discussed  under  that 
head.  See  Chard. 

Early  beets  are  usually  sold  in  bunches  of  about  six, 


280         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

but  the  later  crop  is  sold  in  baskets  or  barrels.  The 
price  depends  much  on  the  earliness  and  freshness  of 
the  product. 

Sow  in  drills  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  ready,  and  thin  to  6-8 
inches  apart,  using  the  thinnings  for  greens.  The  drills  should  be 
far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  wheel-hoe  tillage, — 12-18  inches. 
Field  beets  should  be  far  enough  apart  for  horse  tillage.  Five  to 
eight  pounds  of  seed  is  required  for  an  acre ;  1  ounce  sows  75  to 
100  feet  of  drill.  Average  crop  is  300-400  bushels  per  acre. 

Good  early  and  mid-season  beets  are  Egyptian,  Bassano, 
Eclipse,  Bastian,  Columbia,  Edmand.  A  standard  winter  variety 
is  Long  Blood.  There  are  many  other  good  varieties. 

The  beet  has  descended  from  Beta  vulgaris,  one  of  the  Cheno- 
podiaceae,  and  which  is  a  perennial  herb  of  the  seacoasts  of  Eu- 
rope. It  has  been  cultivated  for  more  than  2,000  years.  The 
thick  root  is  the  result  of  domestication.  The  beet  is  grown  both 
for  its  foliage  and  root.  The  thick-rooted  form  which  we  know 
as  beet  is  called  beet- root  in  England.  Of  foliage  beets  there  are 
two  types:  chard,  used  for  greens  ;  ornamental  beets,  used  in 
flower  gardens  and  lawns  for  their  bright  and  colored  foliage.  Of 
root  beets  there  are  three  types:  garden  beets;  mangel -wurzels, 
or  stock  beets;  sugar  beets.  The  cultivated  beet  has  very  little 
resemblance  to  its  wild  prototype.  For  an  accessible  horticultural 
history  of  the  beet,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  1887,  pp.  433-436. 

In  1889  (Annals  Hort.),  42  varieties  of  garden  beet  and  31  of 
mangels  were  offered  by  American  seedsmen.  In  1887,  Goff  re- 
duced the  garden  beets  to  23  varieties  (6th  Rep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp. 
Sta.,  pp.  120-132).  The  classification  was  based  on  shape  and 
color  : 

A.  Boot  oblate  or  top -shaped. 

B.  Color  red. 
BB.  Color  yellow. 
AA.  Boot  oval. 

(Color  as  above.) 
AAA.  Root  half-long. 

(Color  as  above.) 
Root  long-conical. 
(Color  divisions.) 


Beet— Carrot  281 

Three  diseases  of  beets  are  sometimes  serious,  particularly  on 
sugar  beets:  root-rot,  for  which  apply  lime  to  the  soil;  leaf -spot, 
kept  in  check  by  spray  of  Bordeaux  mixture ;  scab,  prevented  by 
not  growing  beets  on  the  infested  land.  See  Duggar,  Bull.  163, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 

CAEEOT 

Very  clean  and  mellow  soil,  particularly  one  that  will 
not  "bake"  over  the  seeds,  and  close  attention  to  surface 
tillage,  are  the  prime  requisites  for  the  culture  of  car- 
rots. The  crop  is  easy  to  grow  after  the  plants  are  well 
established. 

Carrots  are  of  two  leading  types:  those  grown  for 
spring  or  early  summer  use,  and  those  grown  as  a  main 
crop  and  used  in  the  winter.  Carrots  are  stored  like 
beets  and  other  root  crops.  The  main -season  carrots  are 
not  cultivated  very  extensively  as  a  vegetable -gardening 
crop,  although  they  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for 
stock-feeding.  Young,  fresh  carrots  may  be  shipped 
from  the  southern  states  so  cheaply  that  there  is  rela- 
tively little  need  of  storing  the  roots  for  market.  Aside 
from  this,  the  American  people  eat  relatively  few  car- 
rots, and  the  trade  in  them  is  small. 

The  seeds  of  carrots  are  small  and  germinate  slowly. 
Unless  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  and  free  of  weeds 
the  young  plants  are  likely  to  suffer.  It  is  well  to  sow 
seeds  of  radishes,  turnips  or  other  quick -germinating 
things  with  the  carrots  in  order  to  mark  the  row  and  to 
break  the  crust. 

The  carrot  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  the  early  varieties 
may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  land  is  fit  in  the  spring. 


282         The    Principles    of   Vegetable -Gar  den  ing 

The  late  varieties  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
June  in  the  northern  states.  Carrots  mature  rather 
slowly,  and  even  the  early  varieties  require  from  2  to 
2%  months  to  bring  them  to  edible  size,  unless  they  are 
aided  in  their  growth  by  a  covering  of  sash.  On  land 


Fig.  64.     Seedliugs  of  carrot.    Natural  size. 

that  is  to  be  used  for  late  carrots,  it  is  well  to  sow 
some  early  stuff  in  the  spring,  as  radishes,  and  to  keep 
the  ground  clean  until  it  is  needed  for  the  carrots.  The 
early  weeds  will  then  be  killed,  and  the  young  carrot 
plants  will  have  an  opportunity  to  grow.  In  their  early 
stages,  carrot  plants  are  shallow -rooted  and  delicate, 
and  the  tillage  should  be  very  carefully  done. 

Carrots  are  sown  in  drills  from  10  to  18  inches  apart,  depend- 
ing largely  on  the  variety  and  the  method  to  be  employed  in 
tilling.  The  early  crop  is  thinned  to  4  or  5  inches  apart  in  the 
row,  and  the  late,  large  varieties  to  7  or  8  inches.  If  it  is  not  de- 
sired to  plant  the  late  varieties  for  fall  use,  one  may  use  the  early 
varieties  for  that  purpose,  sowing  the  seed  late  in  July  or  even  the 


Carrot    Notes  28:j 

first  of  August.  Unless  the  soil  is  in  very  fine  tilth  and  moist, 
however,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  stand  as  late  in  the  season  as 
this.  Carrot  seed  should  always  be  sown  thickly  in  order  to  allow 
for  any  failure  in  germination.  For  an  acre,  2  Ibs.  of  seed  is  re- 
quired; for  300  feet  of  drill,  1  oz.,  if  the  seed  is  fresh. 

The  stump-rooted  or  half-long  varieties  are  now  chiefly 
grown.  These  are  early  or  mid -season  varieties  fit  for  using  either 
early  in  the  season  or  late  in  summer.  The  Early  Forcing  is  one 
of  the  best  for  growing  in  hotbeds  or  coldframes,  or  for  grow- 
ing in  the  fall  for  home  use.  The  Half-long  Danvers  is  one  of  the 
reliable  mid-season  varieties.  For  late  or  main-season  crop,  the 
Long  Scarlet  is  excellent  ;  and  for  stock-feeding  the  Long  Orange 
and  Long  White  are  used.  These  latter  varieties  are  also  good  for 
home  use,  although  when  they  are  allowed  to  reach  their  full  size 
they  are  likely  to  be  somewhat  coarse  in  texture.  A  good  crop 
of  carrots  is  200-300  bushels  per  acre. 

The  carrot  is  an  annual  or  sometimes  a  biennial.  The  early 
varieties  will  send  up  flower- stalks  the  same  year  if  left  in  the 
ground ;  but  the  roots  of  the  late  varieties  must  be  stored  during 
the  winter,  and  set  out  the  following  spring,  when  they  will 
quickly  run  to  seed.  The  carrot  has  run  wild  extensively  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country,  where  it  is  a  bad  weed  in  meadows 
and  along  the  roadsides.  It  loses  the  fleshy  character  of  root 
and  is  a  partial  biennial  or  an  annual.  It  inhabits  dry  and  poor 
fields.  Giving  attention  to  securing  more  grass  is  the  best  rem- 
edy. It  is  rarely  troublesome  in  cultivated  fields. 

For  accounts  of  plant-breeding  with  carrots,  consult  Le"veque 
de  Vilmorin,  "Notice  sur  ^Amelioration  de  la  Carotte  Sauvage," 
Trans.  London  Hort.  Soc.,  Ser.  2,  vol.  2,  p.  348;  republished  in 
Paris  in  a  new  edition  in  1886.  See,  also,  Carriere,  Gardeners' 
Chronicle,  1865,  p.  1154. 

The  carrot  is  one  of  the  Parsley  family,  UmbellifersB.  It  is 
known  to  botanists  as  Daucus  Carota.  It  has  been  in  cultivation 
for  more  than  2,000  years.  Its  native  country  is  probably  Europe 
and  western  Asia.  S.ee  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Naturalist,  1887,  pp. 
527-532,  for  history. 

In  1887,  Goff  (6th  Eep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  133-146)  made 


284         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

a  classification  of  the  varieties  of  carrots  based  on  shape,  size  and 
color  of  root,  as  follows : 
A.  Boot  distinctly  pointed. 

B.  Boot  long, — the  length  exceeding  4  times  the  diameter. 

c.  White. 
cc.  Yellow. 
ccc.  Orange  or  red. 
cccc.  Purple. 
BB.  Boot  half -long,  length  not  exceeding  4  times  the  diameter. 

(Color  divisions.) 
AA.  Boot  distinctly  premorse,  or  blunt  at  the  lower  end. 

(Boot  and  color  divisions.) 

He  reduced  the  varieties  to  28.     In  1889,  American  seedsmen 
offered  33  varieties. 

There  are  no  serious  insects  or  diseases. 


TURNIP -ROOTED    CHERVIL 

This  is  a  small -rooted  plant,  something  like  carrot, 
except  that  the  roots  are  gray  or  nearly  black  and  of 
different  flavor.  The  seed  does  not  germinate  well  if 
kept  dry  over  winter.  It  is,  therefore,  sown  in  August 
or  September,  although  it  usually  does  not  germinate 
until  spring.  Otherwise  the  culture  is  like  that  for  car- 
rot. The  root  is  used  as  carrot  is.  It  matures  in  early 
summer,  but  improves  by  remaining  in  the  ground.  It 
is  little  known  in  America. 

Tuberous  or  Turnip -rooted  Chervil  is  Chcerophyllum 
bulbosum,  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  and  one  of  the 
Umbelliferae.  Salad  Chervil  is  a  different  plant  (see 
Chap.  14). 


Turnip 


285 


TUENIP 

Cool,  short  season  and  a  moist  soil  are  the  requisites 
for  best  turnips.  The  seed  germinates  quickly.  Hardy. 

The  true  turnips  usually  have  flat  or  very  oblate 
roots,  soft  white  flesh,  and  green,  rough -hairy  leaves. 
Fig.  66.  They  do  not  require  the  full  season  in  which 
to  mature,  and  are  therefore  grown  as  a  spring  or 
fall  crop.  The  herbage  is  very  hardy,  withstanding 


Fig.  G5.    Seedlings  of  turnip.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

considerable  frost  without  injury.  For  early  use  tur- 
nips are  sown  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  prepared  in  the 
spring.  They  should  give  roots  large  enough  for  the 
table  in  six  to  ten  weeks.  For  the  fall  crop,  seeds  may 
be  sown  in  the  northern  states  as  late  as  the  last  week 
in  July,  and  in  the  middle  states  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
August.  The  plants  will  grow  until  heavy  freezing 
weather,  at  which  time  they  may  be  pulled  and  stored 
as  other  roots  are.  Unlike  parsnips  and  salsify,  the 
roots  will  not  stand  hard  freezing. 

The  value  of  the  turnip  as  an  article  of  food  lies 


286         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

very  largely  in  its  tenderness  and  succulence.  If  the 
plant  grows  slowly,  it  is  woody,  stringy  and  bitter. 
In  order  to  secure  a  quick  growth,  the  land  should  be 
rich  and  moist,  and  in  fine  tilth. 

The  turnip  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  all  plants  to  grow, 
except  that  it  is  very  seriously  attacked  by  the  root 
maggot.  This  pest  can  be  kept  in  check  by  injecting 
bisulfide  of  carbon  into  the  ground  about  the  plants, 
but  this  labor  is  usually  more  than  the  turnips  are 
worth.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  grow  turnips  on  land 
that  has  not  been  infested  ;  or,  if  there  is  no  such 
laud  on  the  premises,  it  is  advisable  not  to  grow  tur- 
nips until  the  insects  are  starved  out. 

For  garden  use,  particularly  for  the  early  season,  turnips  are 
sown  in  drills  10  to  18  inches  apart.  In  drills,  use  1  ounce  of 
seed  for  every  200-300  feetyor  1  pound  to  the  acre;  broadcast, 
use  2-3  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  until 
they  stand  at  first  3  inches  apart;  and  then,  as  some  of  the  young 
roots  are  removed  for  eating,  until  the  main  crop  allows  a  foot 
of  space  for  the  development  of  each  full -sized  tuber.  The  late 
or  fall  crop  is  often  sown  broadcast,  particularly  if  it  is  to  be 
used  for  stock-feeding.  Better  results  are  secured,  however,  if 
the  plants  are  grown  in  rows.  For  general  field  purposes,  the 
rows  are-placed  from  18-30  inches  apart,  so  as  to  allow  of  wheel- 
hoe  or  even  horse-hoe  tillage.  If  the  plants  are  grown  from 
broadcast  seeding,  the  land  should  be  in  excellent  condition  and 
free  from  weeds,  as  no  subsequent  tillage  is  possible.  It  is  an 
adage  in  many  parts  of  the  northern  states  that 

On  the  25th  of  July 
Sow  turnips,  wet  or  dry. 

Staple  kinds  are  Milan,  Purple-Top  Munich,  Teltow  (excellent 
for  home  use).  600-1,000  bushels  may  be  grown  to  the  acre. 

The  turnip  is  one  of  the  Cruciferse  or  mustard  family.  It  is 
known  as  Brassica  Rapa.  It  is  an  annual  plant  if  the  seeds  are 


Turnip 


287 


sown  in  the  spring.  The  plant  is  ordinarily  regarded  as  biennial. 
The  turnip  sometimes  runs  wild  as  a  weed  and  then  loses  its 
fleshy  root  and  is  annual.  Native  to  Eur-Asia.  It  has  been 
cultivated  from  earliest  times.  See  history  by  Sturtevant  in  Amer. 


7 
Fig.  66.     Turnip. 


Fig.  67.     Rutabsiga. 


Nat.,  Sept.,  1891,  pp.  803-806.  For  discussion  of  the  botany  of  tur- 
nips and  allies,  see  Bailey,  "Garden  and  Forest,"  1897,  pp.  321,  322. 
Goff  makes  41  varieties  of  turnips  (6th  Rep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp. 
Sta.,  pp.  168-190),  including  rutabagas.  In  1889,  American  seed 
dealers  sold  50  varieties  classed  as  turnips,  and  31  classed  as 
rutabagas.  Goff' s  classification  was  based  on  form  and  color: 

A.  Root  distinctly  conical,  or  cylindri- conical. 

B.  White. 
BB.  Yellow. 

BBB.  Grayish,  brown  or  black. 
AA.  Root  oval. 

(Color  divisions.) 
AAA.  Root  spherical  or  top-shaped. 

(Color  divisions.) 
AAAA.  Root  distinctly  flattened, 
(Color  divisions.) 


288         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

RUTABAGA 

The  requirements  for  the  growing  of  rutabagas  are 
the  same  as  for  the  growing  of  turnips,  except  that  the 
plants  require  a  month  to  six  weeks'  longer  time  in 
which  to  mature. 

Rutabaga  differs  from  the  turnip  in  having  a  denser 
and  mostly  yellow -fleshed  root,  which  is  rounded  or 
elongated  and  not  distinctly  flat,  the  leaves  glaucous- 
blue  and  not  hairy,  the  crown  long  and  leafy,  the  roots 
arising  from  the  under  side  of  the  tuber  as  well  as  from 
the  tap-root.  Compare  Figs.  66  and  67.  It  is  a  richer 
vegetable  than  the  turnip.  It  is  grown  either  as  a  spring 
or  a  fall  crop  and  is  used  also  for  stock -feeding.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  turnip,  the  product  that  is  grown  for 
stock  is  raised  from  summer-sown  seeds.  For  the  main 
crop,  the  seeds  are  usually  sown  as  early  as  the  first  of 
July  or  the  latter  part  of  June. 

The  rutabaga,  known  in  England  also  as  Swedish  turnip  and 
turnip-rooted  cabbage  and  in  French  as  chou-navet,  is  Brassica 
campestris,  native  of  Eur-Asia. 

PARSNIP 

A  cool,  very  deep  rich  soil  and  one  that  does  not 
"bake"  over  the  seeds,  and  a  full  length  season,  are  the 
requisites  for  parsnip -growing. 

The  parsnip  occupies  the  land  during  the  whole  sea- 
son. The  seeds  are  sown  in  the  spring  as  early  as  the 
ground  is  fit.  The  roots  may  be  harvested  in  the  fall 
and  stored  in  the  cellar  or  in  pits,  or  they  may  be  left  in 


Parsnip 


289 


the  ground  until  spring.  The  hard  freezing  of  winter 
does  not  injure  them.  In  fact,  many  people  believe  that 
the  quality  of  the  roots  is  improved  by  freezing.  This 
notion,  however,  is  unfounded,  for  if  the  roots  are  not 
allowed  to  shrivel  during  the  winter,  their  quality  is  as 
good  as  when  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground.  If  one 
is  growing  parsnips  for  the  market,  it  is  important  that 
at  least  a  large  part  of  the  crop  be  stored  for  the  winter, 


Fig.  68.    Parsnip  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

for  the    highest   prices  are  usually  secured  before  the 
roots  can  be  dug  from  the  field  in  the  spring. 

The  parsnip  makes  a  long -cylindrical,  tapering  root: 
therefore  the  ground  should  be  deep.  Much  of  the 
value  of  the  parsnip  as  a  market  crop  is  destroyed 
when  the  roots  are  branchy  and  forking.  Land  that  is 
shallow  and  lumpy  tends  to  make  such  roots.  Good 
parsnip  roots  should  be  1  foot  long,  and  straight,  clean 
and  comely. 

The  seeds  of  parsnips  germinate  rather  slowly,  and  retain 
their  vitality  only  a  year  or  two;  therefore  they  should  be  sown 
thick.  It  is  well  to  plant  with  them  some  quick-germinating 
seeds  in  order  to  break  the  ground  and  to  mark  the  row.  Seeds 
are  usually  sown  in  drills  far  enough  apart  to  allow  of  wheel-hoe  or 

S 


290         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

horse  tillage,  and  the  young  plants  are  thinned  to  stand  about 
6  to  8  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Subsequent  treatment  consists 
only  in  keeping  the  land  well  tilled  and  free  from  weeds.  There 
are  no  serious  pests.  One  ounce  of  fresh  seed  is  used  to  200-250 
feet  of  drill;  4-6  Ibs.  is  generally  used  to  the  acre.  A  good  crop 
is  500-600  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  more  than  this  is  secured  under 
the  best  conditions. 

The  parsnip  (Pastinaca  sativa)  is  one  of  the  Umbelliferse  fam- 
ily, and  is  allied  to  carrot,  celery  and  parsley.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Old  World.  It  is  biennial.  The  flower- stalks  arise  from  the 
roots  that  were  produced  the  year  before.  In  some  cases,  when 
the  season  is  dry  and  long,  roots  may  send  up  flower-stalks  the 
very  year  in  which  they  grow.  The  parsnip  has  run  wild  as  a 
weed  in  old  fields.  It  is  then  a  biennial.  It  is  not  a  serious 
weed  in  well  tilled  lands,  and  this  fact  suggests  the  proper  treat- 
ment if  it  should  becpme  a  nuisance.  The  strong  flower- stalks  of 
the  parsnip  are  said  to  be  slightly  poisonous  by  contact  to  some 
persons. 

Goff  (2d  Rept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  180,  and  4th  Kept.,  p. 
139),  reduced  the  varieties  of  parsnips  to  3.  In  1889  (Annals  Hort. ) 
American  dealers  offered  15  named  varieties.  The  Hollow  Crown 
and  Student  parsnips  are  the  standard  varieties.  For  an  account 
of  the  experimental  origin  of  the  Student  parsnip,  see  Buckman, 
Gardeners'  Chronicle,  1862,  p.  721.  For  a  history  of  the  parsnip, 
consult  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Jan.,  1890,  pp.  46-48. 

"In  the  parsnip  the  tap-root  is  very  long,  and  tapers  very 
slowly  after  the  first  few  inches  in  depth.  In  a  plant  of  the  Long 
Hollow  Crown  variety,  examined  September  17,  we  traced  the  tap- 
root downward  a  distance  of  30  inches,  beyond  which  it  was  too 
delicate  to  follow.  Branches  leave  the  tap-root  throughout  its 
length,  many  starting  out  below  the  clay  line.  One  of  these,  at  a 
depth  of  2  feet,  we  followed  a  distance  of  7  inches  through  very 
stiff  clay.  The  fibrous  roots  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  are 
numerous,  -but  short,  the  longest  ones  appearing  to  extend  but 
about  14  inches  from  the  main  root.  Considering  the  proportion 
of  the  roots  that  lie  deep  in  the  soil,  the  parsnip  is  a  deep-rooting 
plant."—  Goff,  3d  Rept.  N.  T.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  311. 


Salsify 


291 


SALSIFY 


Deep,  rich  cool  soil  and  the  full-length  season  are 
required  for  the  production  of  good  salsify. 

The  salsify  plant  is  grown  for  cooking  only,  not  for 
stock.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  ready  in  spring  and  the  young  plants  thinned  to  4  or 


Fig.  69.    Salsify  seedlings,    Natural  size. 

5  inches  apart.  The  plant  is  perfectly  hardy  and  the 
roots  may  be  left  in  the  ground  over  winter,  as  they  are 
not  injured  by  frost.  If  one  desires  to  use  the  plant 
during  winter,  however,  or  wishes  to  find  the  best 
markets,  a  large  part  of  the  roots  should  be  stored  in 
the  cellar  or  in  pits.  There  are  no  serious  pests  of  the 
salsify  plant,  and  the  seeds  germinate  readily.  These 
seeds  are  really  fruits,  and  they  are  long  and  stick-like, 
and  are  rather  difficult  to  sow  with  the  seed  drill. 


292          The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Salsify  is  one  of  the  few  members  of  the  Composite  family 
which  produces  edible  parts.  It  is  Tragopogon  porrifolius  of  the 
botanists.  It  is  biennial.  It  has  been  comparatively  little  improved 
by  domestication.  There  is  a  relatively  large-rooted  form  known 
as  the  Mammoth  Sandwich  Island,  and  another  called  the  Im- 
proved French.  Even  of  the  largest  varieties,  the  roots  are  small, 
rarely  more  than  2  or  3  inches  in  diameter  at  the  crown.  Be- 
cause of  its  flavor  of  oysters,  it  is  commonly  known  as  the  oyster 
plant  or  vegetable  oyster.  For  his- 
tory, see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat., 
July,  1890,  pp.  635,  636.  Salsify 
sometimes  runs  wild,  and  then  loses 
the  fleshy  character  of  the  root.  It 
makes  a  straight  stalk  2-3  feet  tall, 
and  bears  large  handsome  purple 
flowers,  which  close  about  midday. 
It  is  native  to  southern  Europe. 
There  are  no  serious  enemies. 

An  ounce  of  salsify  seed  sows 
about  70  feet  of  drill ;  8-10  pounds 
sow  an  acre:  200-300  bushels  per 
acre  is  a  good  crop. 


SCORZONERA,    OR  BLACK 
SALSIFY 

The  cultivation  of  this  plant 
is  in  all  ways  like  that  of  sal- 
sify. It  is  perennial,  however, 
and  the  roots  continue  to  en- 
large without  becoming  inedi- 
ble if  left  in  the  ground  for 

Fig.  70.    Spanish  salsify.    Scolymus 

more  than  one  year. 


Scorzonera  Hispanica  (Compositse)  has  a  long  black  root,  yellow 
flowers,  light-  colored  seeds,  and  broader  leaves  than  salsify.     It  is 


Scolymus  293 

used  in  the  same  way  as  salsify.  It  is  little  known  in  this  country, 
but  it  is  a  good  addition  to  the  home  garden.  History  by  Sturte- 
vant  in  Amer.  Nat.,  July,  1890,  p.  643. 


SCOLYMUS,  OR  SPANISH  SALSIFY 

Cultivated  like  salsify,  and  the  roots  used  for  the 
same  purposes.  Fig.  70. 

"A  vegetable  that  promises  to  be  of  considerable  value  in 
this  country,  if  once  generally  introduced,  is  the  so-called  Span- 
ish salsify,  a  native  of  southern  Europe.  I  have  grown  this  for 
two  years.  It  makes  a  root  much  like  salsify,  except  that  it  is 
much  lighter  colored  and  considerably  longer.  Its  flavor  is  less 
pronounced  than  that  of  the  salsify,  but  when  carefully  cooked 
it  possesses  a  very  agreeable  quality  which  is  somewhat  inter- 
mediate between  that  of  the  salsify  and  parsnip.  It  is  adapted 
to  all  the  methods  of  cooking  employed  for  those  vegetables. 
The  particular  value  of  the  vegetable,  aside  from  affording  a  va- 
riety in  the  kitchen  garden,  is  its  large  size  and  productiveness 
as  compared  with  the  salsify.  We  raise  almost  twice  the  crop 
upon  a  given  area  than  we  can  secure  from  salsify,  and  no 
doubt  it  could  be  sold  for  that  vegetable  in  the  general  market. 
The  seeds  are  much  easier  to  handle  and  sow  than  those  of  the 
salsify.  It  is  sown  and  cultivated  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  that  vegetable,  and  can  be  dug  either  in  the  fall  or  spring. 
Fig.  70  shows  a  good  root.  Perhaps  the  greatest  disadvantage  of 
the  plant  is  the  very  prickly  leaves,  which  may  make  it  un- 
pleasant to  handle.  But  on  the  whole,  it  is  worth  introduction 
into  American  gardens.  Seeds  are  offered  by  some  American 
seedsmen. 

"Spanish  salsify  (Scolymus  Hispanicus)  is  closely  allied  to 
the  cardoon  and  artichoke,  and  its  young  leaves  are  sometimes 
bleached  and  eaten  like  cardoons." — Bailey,  in  Bull.  37,  Cornell 
Exp.  Sta.  (1891). 


294          The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 
HOESE-EADISH 

A  very  deep,  cool,  rich  soil  and  late- season  growth  are 
the  essentials  for  success  in  the  raising  of  horse-radish. 
It  is  perfectly  hardy.  Propagated  by  root  cuttings. 

Horse-radish  is  grown  for  its  root,  which  has  a 
pungent  quality  that  makes  it  prized  as  a  relish.  It  is 
perennial,  the  roots  enlarging  and  becoming  woody  for 
several  years.  As  a  commercial  crop,  however,  it  is 
grown  wholly  as  an  annual,  being  propagated  from 
cuttings  of  the  small  side  roots.  These  cuttings  are 
made  from  the  trimmings  when  the  roots  are  dressed 
for  market/  A  good  cutting  should  be  from  the  size  of  a 
lead  pencil  up  to  that  of  one's  little  finger.  It  is  usu- 
ally made  from  4  to  7  inches  long,  and  the  lower  end 
is  cut  slanting  in  order  to  designate  the  right  end  up. 
These  cuttings  or  sets  are  tied  in  bundles  and  stored  in 
the  cellar  or  pit,  as  the  roots  are.  They  may  be  planted 
at  the  first  opening  of  spring,  but  since  the  plant  makes 
the  larger  part  of  its  growth  late  in  the  season,  it  is 
customary  to  hold  them  rather  late  and  to  plant  them 
with  some  other  crop  They  are  often  planted  in  the 
rows  of  early  cabbages  or  beets.  When  the  cabbages 
are  off,  the  horse-radish  takes  the  land.  The  sets  are 
dropped  right  end  up  in  furrows  or  holes,  which  are 
made  with  a  strong -pointed  stick  or  crowbar.  They 
are  usually  placed  in  a  somewhat  slanting  position, 
although  the  upright  position  is  probably  as  good.  The 
top  of  the  cutting  usually  stands  3  to  5  inches  below 
the  top  of  the  soil.  This  deep  planting  delays  the 
appearing  of  the  plants  and  thus  prevents  interference 


Horse  -  Radish 


295 


with  the  combination -crop.  The  rows  are  far  enough 
apart  to  allow  of  horse  tillage,  and  the  plants  should 
stand  from  12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The 
horse-radish  plant  will  stand  much  abuse.  If  it  grows 
so  rapidly  as  to  interfere  with  the  cabbages  or  other 


Fig.  71.     Set  planted 
slanting.    A. 


Fig.  72.    Set  planted 
wrong  end  up.    D. 


Fig.  73.    Result  of  plant 
set  wrong  end  up.    D. 


plants  with  which  it  is  planted,  the  tops  may  be  cut 
off  two  or  three  times  early  in  the  season.  After  the 
other  crop  is  removed,  the  land  is  given  merely  good 
surface  tillage.  Sometimes  horse-radish  is  made  the 
main  crop,  and  other  crops  are  grown  incidentally.  In 
this  case,  it  is  planted  in  rows  3  to  4  feet  apart  on 
ridges,  and  spinach,  early  beets  or  lettuce  are  grown 
on  the  sides  of  the  ridges. 

The  horse-radish  will  grow  until  freezing  weather. 


Fig.  74. 

Roots  from  sets  planted 
horizontally.     E. 


Fig.  75. 
One-fourth-inch  piece. 


Fig.  76.    Roots  from 
one-fourth-inch  piece.    F. 


Fig.  77.     One-inch 
set.    G. 


Fig.  78.    Product  of 
one-inch  set.  G. 


Horse -Radish 


297 


It  is  best  to  plow  out  the  roots  in  the  fall  and  to  store 
or  sell  them.  As  the  horse-radish  is  likely  to  become 
a  bad  weed,  it  is  necessary  that  all  the  small  roots 
be  taken  out  of  the  land.  When  the  crop  is  harvested, 
therefore,  all  the  loose  roots  are  picked  from  the  furrow 
and  destroyed.  If  these  fur- 
rows are  left  open  until  spring 
many  more  of  the  roots  will 
be  exposed,  and  they  may 
then  be  removed.  Subsequent 
plowing  and  dragging  will 
often  expose  still  others.  It 
is  usually  impossible  to  get 
all  the  roots  out  of  the  land, 
but  if  the  ground  is  occupied 
with  other  crops  and  is  kept 
in  good  tillage,  the  horse- 
radish should  not  become  a 
nuisance. 

The  roots  are  washed  and 
trimmed  before  they  are  sent 
to  market.  For  special  trade, 
the  roots  may  be  tied  in 
bunches  of  6  or  8,  but  the 
crop  is  generally  marketed  in 
barrels  or  in  bulk. 

In  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try the  growing  of  horse- 
radish is  coming  to  be  an  important  industry.  Since 
the  roots  must  be  grated  before  they  are  used,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  they  be  long,  symmetrical,  uniform  and  as 


Fig.  79.    Horse-radish  graters. 


298          The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Oar  den  ing 

large  as  possible  in  order  to  fit  the  grating  machines. 
Fig.  79.  In  fact,  small  and  branchy  horse-radish  can 
scarcely  be  sold  at  any  price.  Although  it  grows  in 
old  gardens  with  no  care  whatever,  the  plant  must  have 
deep,  rich  soil  and  good  care  if  a  marketable  crop  is 
produced.  The  price  per  ton  varies  from  ten  to  fifty 
dollars,  and  from  two  to  four  tons  should  be  raised  on 
an  acre,  the  latter  quantity  when  the  ground  is  deep 
and  rich  and  when  the  plants  do  not  suffer  for  moisture. 

Horse-radish,  Cochlearia  Armoratia,  is  one  of  the  Crueifera^i 
or  Mustard  family.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  a  thousand  years 
and  more,  probably  having  been  s-pread  from  eastern  Europe. 
It  is  now  a  common  weed  about  old  homesteads.  The  early  leaves 
are  pinnatiseet,  but  the  later  ones  are  broad  and  only  toothed. 
The  plant  blooms  profusely,  bearing  many  small  white  flowers  in  a 
large  cluster  which  stands  1-2  feet  above  the  ground.  Seed -pods 
are  frequently  formed,  but  good  seed  is  practically  unknown. 
The  plant  is  always  grown  from  pieces  of  the  roots.  For  domestic 
use  it  is  grated  and  placed  in  vinegar.  The  grated  product  should 
be  kept  in  a  tight  vessel,  for  it  loses  its  strength  on  exposure. 
There  are  no  horticultural  varieties.  For  history,  see  Sturtevant, 
Amer.  Nat.,  May,  1888,  pp.  431-32. 

Horse-radish  will  grow  from  a  very  small  root-cutting  (even 
if  %  inch  or  less  long),  but  the  resulting  plants  are  usually  small. 
General  experience  has  designated  the  6 -inch  cutting  as  the  best 
under  usual  conditions,  although  experiments  are  needed  in  respect 
to  the  best  kind  of  cutting  for  particular  soils  and  circumstances. 
In  old  home  grounds,  horse-radish  is  allowed  to  remain  year  after 
year.  This  is  well  enough  for  the  small  home  supply,  but  it 
does  not  pay  commercially  nor  does  it  give  a  product  of  the  best 
quality.  It  is  customary  to  plant  the  old  crowns,  but  sprawling, 
crooked  roots  are  the  result. 

At  Cornell  University  the  following  experiments  have  been 
made  (never  published)  with  horse-radish  cuttings  (1890-91): 


Horse -Radish    Experiments  299 

EXPERIMENT  I 

(Soil  a  clay  loam) 

1.  The  cuttings — 

A.  Cuttings  1-2  inches  long,  made  from  scraggly  and  much- 

divided  roots,  planted  slanting. 

B.  Cuttings  1-2  inches  long,  made  from  straight  roots. 

c.  Commercial  sets,  6-8  inches  long,  planted  top  end  up. 

D.  Commercial  sets,  6-8  inches  long,  planted  bottom  end  up. 

E.  Commercial  sets,  6-8  inches  long,  planted  horizontally. 

p.  Cuttings  /^  inch  long,  from  side  roots. 
G.  Cuttings  1  inch  long,  from  side  roots. 

2.  The  results— 

A.  Crop  very  poor,  the  roots  being  long,  small  and  prongy. 

The  crop  came  up  well,  and  the  plants  were  vigorous. 
Fig.  71  shows  a  plant  six  weeks  old. 

B.  Roots  small,  but  fairly  straight.      Decidedly  better  crop 

than  A. 

c.  Crooked,  irregular,  rather  short,  but  better  than  D  and  E. 

D.  Few  good  roots,  but  better  than  E.     The  roots  show  clearly 

that  the  horse-radish  cutting  knows  when  it  stands  on  its 
head.  On  July  4,  the  plants  looked  as  in  Fig.  72,  the 
shoots  coming  from  the  lower  (top)  end  of  the  cutting. 
Fig.  73  shows  the  final  product.  The  plants  came  up 
quickly,  and  the  rows  were  indistinguishable,  when 
growing,  from  c. 

E.  Very  branchy  and  worthless,  with  scarcely  a  marketable 

root.  Fig.  74.  The  plants  made  the  best  stand  of  any 
in  the  whole  experiment. 

F.  Roots  long  and  finger-like,  worthless  for  market.     Fig.  75 

shows  one  of  the  young  plants  six  weeks  after  planting, 
and  Fig.  76  is  a  full-grown  root.  The  plants  came  up 
slowly  and  made  a  poor  stand. 

Q.  A  good  straight  lot,  better  than  any  other.  The  plants 
came  up  rather  slowly  and  the  stand  was  not  the  best. 
Fig.  77  shows  a  young  plant,  and  Fig.  78  a  mature  root. 


300         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 
EXPERIMENT  II 

(Clay  loam) 

1.  The  cuttings— 

j.  Commercial  sets,  6-8  inches  long,  as  large  as  the  end  of 
one's  little  finger.  Set  slanting,  with  top  of  cutting 
near  the  surface. 

K.  Commercial  sets,  slanting,  with  top  of  cutting  3  inches  deep. 

L.  Commercial  sets  cut  in  two, — 3-4  inches  long.  Set  slant- 
ing, 3  inches  deep. 

M.  Commercial  sets  cut  in  two,  slanting,  6  inches  deep. 

N.  Commercial  sets  cut  into  1-inch  lengths,  and  dropped  in 
furrow  3  inches  deep. 

o.  Commercial  sets,  4-9  inches  long.     Set  vertical,  with  top 

of  cutting  at  surface  of  ground, 
p.  Commercial  sets,  vertical,  3  inches  deep. 
Q.  Commercial  sets,  slanting,  7  inches  deep. 
R.  Commercial  sets,  vertical,  3  inches  deep,  bottom  end  up. 

s.  Sets  4-8  inches  long,  made  of  prongs  of  roots  and  about 
%  inch  thick.  Set  vertical,  3-4  inches  deep. 

T.  Sets  as  in  s,  but  cut  in  %-inch  lengths  and  sown  in  furrow 
3  inches  deep. 

u.  Old  roots,  4-8  inches  long,  1-2  inches  thick  at  top,  made 
from  roots  2  or  3  years  old. 

v.  Crowns  from  roots  8  or  more  years  old. 

2.  The  results— 

'  >  The  two  crops  not  distinguishable,  both  good. 

K.  J 

L.  "I  More  branching  and  prongy  than  J  and  K.    Very  few  plants 
M.  J      of  M  came  up. 

N.     A  very  straight  lot,  but  roots  rather  small.     Perhaps  a 
richer  soil  would  have  made  up  the  size. 

^''  «'  \  Very  little  difference  between  these  four  lots.      All  good. 
Q-»  R-  J 

S.     A  good  lot,  hardly  distinguishable  from  J  and  K. 

T.     Boots  not  so  straight  and  even  as  N. 

u.  \Very  prongy  and  misshapen;   valueless  for  commercial 

v.  J      purposes. 


CHAPTER  X 

TUBER    CROPS 

Potato,  Sweet  Potato. 

THE  tuber  crops,  as  the  term  is  understood  in  this 
writing,  are  two,  the  common  or  Irish  potato,  and 
the  sweet  potato.  The  former  is  staple  in  the  North 
and  t-he  latter  in  the  South.  The  two  are  so  unlike 
that  it  is  not  expedient  to  endeavor  to  state  principles 
that  shall  apply  to  both. 

POTATO 

Deeply  pulverized  cool  soil  holding  much  capillary 
moisture  and  rich  in  potash,  deep  and  early  planting, 
level  culture,  frequent  surface  tillage  to  conserve  moisture, 
spraying  to  insure  healthy  foliage:  these  are  requisites 
of  the  best  potato  culture.  The  potato  is  propagated 
by  means  of  tubers.  It  thrives  best  in  a  relatively  cool 
climate:  in  the  South,  it  is  successful  onlyas  a  spring 
and  fall  crop,  for  the  midsummer  season  is  too  continu- 
ously hot. 

In  most  cases  a  heavy  yield  of  potatoes  is  largely  a 
question  of  moisture.  If  planted  late,  the  crop  loses 
the  benefit  of  much  of  the  winter  precipitation,  since  the 
moisture  passes  from  the  soil  early  in  the  season  unless 
the  land  receives  frequent  surface  tillage.  Planting  on 

(301) 


302         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

ridges  or  hills  wastes  the  soil  moisture  in  most  cases. 
"Hilling  up"  is  often  necessary,  however,  because  the 
land  is  not  deep  enough  to  allow  the  tubers  to  grow 
well  below  the  surface.  The  ground  should  be  such  as 
to  allow  the  tubers  to  be  planted  at  least  four  inches 
beneath  the  level.  If  the  potatoes  are  dropped  in  a  deep 
furrow,  the  earth  is  plowed  over  them,  and  the  surface 
may  be  harrowed  two  or  three  times  before  the  plants 


Fig.  80.    A  potato  plant  in  deep  soil.    The  old  seed-piece  is  seen 
near  tlie  bottom. 

are  up,  thus  conserving  moisture  and  destroying  weeds. 
Land  should  have  been  well  prepared  before  the  plant- 
ing in  order  to  render  plant -food  available  and  to  make 
it  retentive  of  moisture.  Figs.  80  and  81  (both  directly 
from  nature)  show  the  habit  of  the  potato  plant. 

From  five  to  eight  light  surface  tillings  are  required 
during  the  season  in  order  to  save  the  moisture.  Even 
after  the  vines  have  begun  to  spread  and  to  cover  the 
ground,  tillage  may  be  necessary  in  a  dry  year. 

The  early  crop,  for  market -gardening  use,  is  secured 


Early   Potatoes 


303 


by  (1)  selecting  "early"  soil  and  site;  (2)  by  preparing 
the  land  the  fall  before,  either  by  means  of  special  plow- 
ing or  by  growing  a  late -tilled  crop;  (3)  by  using 
quickly  available  concentrated  fertilizers;  (4)  by  choos- 
ing early  varieties ;  (5)  by  sprouting  the  potatoes  in  a 


Fig.  81.    A  hill  of  potatoes  in  stiff  clay  soil.    The  tubers  are  too  near 
the  surface.    The  old  seed-piece  is  at  A. 

warm  place  before  planting  (before  the  tubers  are  cut), 
allowing  the  sprouts  to  become  3-6  inches  long. 

In  the  southern  states,  the  common  or  Irish  potato 
(also  called  "round  potato "  and  " white  potato")  is  a 
minor  crop  in  general  farm  operations.  The  crop  must 
be  grown  either  early  or  late  in  the  season  in  order  to 


304         The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

avoid  the  long,  hot  summer.  It  is  then  difficult  to  keep 
the  potatoes  from  the  spring  crop  until  the  next  spring, 
or  even  until  it  is  time  to  plant  the  second  crop  in 
August  (in  the  Gulf  states).  "Seed"  is  commonly 
secured  from  the  North,  and  only  a  spring  crop  is 
grown  for  the  northern  market. 

The  potato  is  inveterately  attacked  by  the  potato- 
bug,  flea -beetle,  and  various  blights.  Arsenic,  as  in 
Paris  green,  is  a  specific  for  the  bug,  and  Bordeaux 
mixture  for  the  true  blight  or  rot.  For  the  flea -beetle 
there  is  no  sure  remedy,  but  it  may  be  kept  away  to 
a  great  extent  by  heavy  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture. Much  of  the  so-called  blight  is  chargeable  to  this 
insect.  There  is  no  vegetable -gardening  crop  for  which 
spraying  is  so  imperative  as  for  the  potato.  For  scab, 
grow  the  crop  on  uninfected  land  and  use  clean  seed; 
or  if  the  seed  is  suspected,  soak  it  after  cutting  in  cor- 
rosive sublimate  solution  or  formalin. 

Nowadays  potatoes  are  planted  in  drills  or  continuous  fur- 
rows, which  are  3-3/£  feet  apart.  Single  pieces  of  tubers  are 
dropped  at  intervals  of  12-18  inches.  If  the  pieces  are  cut  to  one 
strong  eye  and  dropped  at  above  distances,  from  8-10  bushels  will 
be  required  to  plant  an  acre.  Many  people  use  too  little  seed. 
The  yield  of  potatoes  averages  about  75  bushels  per  acre,  but 
with  forethought  and  good  tillage  and  some  fertilizer,  the  yield 
should  run  from  200-300  bushels,  and  occasional  yields  will  much 
exceed  the  latter  figure.  In  large -area  operations  potatoes  are 
planted  and  harvested  by  machinery,  or  by  specially  made  plows. 
Fig.  82.  There  are  various  devices  for  sorting  them,  one  of  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  82,  i,  and  another  in  Fig.  83. 

The  size  in  which  pieces  of  the  seed  tuber  should  be  cut  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy,  but  the  question  is  easy  of 
solution  if  careful  and  comparable  experiments  are  made.  Arthur 


Fig.  82.    Potato  implements  and  machinery. 

a,  Aspinwall  potato  cutter;  b,  Scofield  Jr.  planter;  c,  Aspinwall  planter;  d,  Gos- 
lee  tobacco  rigger  and  potato  coverer;  e,  Hitchcock  potato  digger;  f,  Planet 
Jr.  digger;  g,  Planet  Jr.  sweet  potato  digger;  ft,  Scofield  Jr.  digger;  t,  As- 
pinwall sorter;  j,  Hoover  potato  digger. 


306         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

has  shown  (Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.,  1891,  p.  11;  Bull.  42, 
Purdue  Univ.)  that  the  unit  in  such  tests  should  not  be  the  num- 
ber of  eyes  to  the  piece,  but  the  size  of  the  piece.  The  piece 


Fig.  83.    A  potato  sorter. 

contains  food.  The  more  food  the  stronger  the  initial  growth  of 
the  plant:  and  the  stronger  the  initial  growth,  the  better  the  crop, 
other  things  being  equal.  But  if  the  piece  is  too  large  it  contains 
so  many  eyes  that  there  will  be  too  many  stalks  to  appropriate  the 
food  and  to  struggle  with  each  other.  The  pieces  on  the  tip  or 
"seed  end"  may  contain  several  eyes,  but  those  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  tuber  usually  should  contain  only  one  or  two  eyes. 
See  Fig.  84.  Seed  should  not  be  cut  any  considerable  time  in  ad- 
vance of  planting  unless  it  is  rolled  in  plaster. 

The  varieties  of  potatoes  are  numerous  and  poorly  defined, 
and  it  is  not  worth  the  while  to  enumerate  any  of  them  here.  In 
the  year  1889  the  seed  merchants  of  the  United 
States  are  known  to  have  offered  at  least  889  va- 
rieties (Annals  Hort.).  Because  of  variation  and 
inattention  -to  selection,  varieties  of  potatoes  soon 
run  out  ( see  "  Survival  of  the  Unlike  " ) . 

~Fig.  84.  Oue  °f   tne   m°st  interesting  chapters  in  the 

A  good  cutting  or  history  of  pestilential  diseases  of  plants  is  afforded 
seed-piece.  by  the  viruient  spread  of  potato  blight.  It  caused 
the  famine  in  Ireland  in  1846.  It  overran  this  country.  Periodi- 
cally it  is  serious  at  the  present  day,  although  it  cannot  with- 
stand Bordeaux  mixture  when  the  material  is  applied  early  and 


Potatoes   in    the   South 


307 


Fig.  85.    A  potato  tuber  Is  a  stem  with 
eyes  or  buds. 


with  a  purpose.  For  an  early  American  inquiry  into  this  disease, 
see  Charles  P.  Bosson,  "Observations  on  the  Potato,  and  a  Remedy 
for  the  Potato  Plague,"  Bos- 
ton, 18i6. 

On  keeping  potatoes  in 
the  South  from  the  spring 
crop  to  the  fall  crop,  McKay 
makes  the  following  discus- 
sion (in  Bull.  54,  Miss.  Exp. 
Station) :  "  If  exposed  to  the 
hot  sun  a  few  hours  Irish 
potatoes  will  become  blis- 
tered. To  prevent  this,  dig 
on  cloudy  days  or  else  ar- 
range to  remove  to  a  shady 
place  or  cover  in  some  way 
shortly  after  they  are  dug.  Several  methods  of  keeping  potatoes 
during  the  hot  summer  months  are  practiced,  and  with  varying 
success.  Upon  examination  it  will  be  found  that,  as  a  rule, 

those  left  in  the  field,  scattered 
through  the  soil,  keep  better  than 
those  that  are  carefully  housed. 
Taking  this  lesson  from  nature,  we 
have  tried  the  method  of  bedding 
the  potatoes  in  the  field,  somewhat 
after  the  usual  plan  of  bedding  sweet 
potatoes  for  growing  slips,  and  with 
good  success.  We  are  careful  to  see 
that  the  potatoes  are  covered  to  the 
depth  of  6  or  7  inches  with  dirt,  and 
that  the  bed  is  well  drained.  We 
have  practiced  the  same  method  of 
bedding  the  potatoes  in  the  shade 
of  spreading  trees,  and  on  the  cellar 

floor.    A  cool,  shady  situation  is  bet- 
Fig.  86.    A  potato  placed  in  a  jar    ter    than    the    Q          fie]d>     We  haye 
of  water  will  throw  out  shoots. 
The  food  is  in  the  potato.  had  much  better  success  with  pota- 


308         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

toes  covered  with  soil  than  with  those  spread  out  in  open  air  in  the 
cellar,  or  under  trees  where  we  covered  with  leaves.  In  no  event 
should  the  potatoes  be  piled  or  heaped  together,  so  long  as  warm 
weather  continues.  If  potatoes  intended  for  the  table  are  exposed 
to  the  light  for  any  considerable  length  of  time  they  will  turn 
greenish  in  color  and  become  unwholesome  for  food.  If  not  spread 
in  a  dark  place  they  should  be  covered  with  leaves,  straw  or  dirt." 
The  potato  (Solanum  tuberosum)  is  native  to  temperate  parts 
of  Chile  and  northward  to  southern  Colorado.  The  northern  form 
differs  little  from  main  type.  It  is  known  as  var.  boreale.  It  was 


A 


Fig.  87.    New  potatoes  growing  from  an  old  one. 

probably  first  taken  from  the  Andean  region.  It  was  in  cultivation 
by  aborigines  on  the  discovery  of  America.  For  history,  see 
DeCandolle's"  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants;"  Sturtevant,  in  Amer. 
Nat.,  April,  1$90,  pp.  315-318;  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  Oct.  30  and 
Dec.  4,  1886  (being  a  report  of  the  potato  tercentenary;  also  see 
The  Garden,  vol.  30,  pp.  530,  535).  Rev.  Chauncey  E.  Goodrich,  of 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  made  an  effort,  in  the  middle  of  the  century,  to  breed 
blight-proof  varieties  from  newly  imported  native  stock  from 
South  America.  His  experiments  are  of  great  historic  importance. 

For  a  botanical  account  of  the  species  allied  to  the  potato,  see 
J.  G.  Baker,  "A  Review  of  the  Tuber-bearing  Species  of  So- 
lanum," Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  xx:  489.  For  a  sketch  of  the  Mexican 
wild  potato  (Solanum  tuberosum),  see  Bull.  49,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 
For  an  account  of  grafting  potatoes  on  tomatoes,  and  vice  versa, 
see  Bull.  61,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


Potato    Diseases  309 

The  potato  tuber  is  a  thickened  stem,  with  eyes  or  buds 
(usually  more  than  one  bud  in  each  eye).  Fig.  85.  The  tuber  is  a 
storehouse  of  food,  largely  starch.  The  sprouts  feed  on  this  food 
for  a  time.  Fig.  86.  In  the  bin  late  in  spring  a  potato  may  throw 
out  a  root-like  stem  and  produce  new  tubers  from  its  own  sub- 
stance. Fig.  87.  In  some  cases  a  tuber  grows  inside  the  old  one. 
The  literature  of  the  potato  is  voluminous,  although  there  is 
no  single  commanding  book.  Consult  "The  $100  Prize  Essay  on 
the  Cultivation  of  the  Potato"  (Wylie  and  Compton),  pub.  by 
Orange  Judd  Co.;  T.  B.  Terry,  "ABC  of  Potato  Culture;"  and 
E.  S.  Carman,  "New  Potato  Culture."  The  " new  potato  culture " 
of  Carman  is  the  trench  or  furrow  system  as  distinguished  from 
the  hilling  sysjtem;  this  system,  adapted  to  farm  conditions,  has 
recently  been  urged  by  Roberts  and  his  colleagues  in  Bulls.  ISO, 
140,  156,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 

For  some  of  the  recent  literature  on  insects  and  diseases,  see: 
Stalk  weevil,  N.  J.  Bull.  No.  109;  Kansas  No.  82.     Remove 

all  dead  vines;  stimulate  plant  growth  if  larveB  appear. 
Flea-beetle,  N.  Y.  Bull.  No.  113;  Cornell  No.  113.     Use  Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Rot,  Dept.  Agric.  Rept.  1888,  p.  337;  N.  H.  No.  22;  Cornell 
No.  113;  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  91 ;  N.  Y.  No.  123.  Bordeaux 
begun  before  appearance. 

Early  blight,  Vt.  Rept.  1892,  pp.  66-70;  Cornell  No.  H3,  col- 
ored illus.;  N.  Y.  No.  123;  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  91.  Use 
Bordeaux. 

Scab,  Ct.  Rept.  1890,  pp.  81-93,  1891,  pp.  153-160;  Cornell 
No.  113;  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  91.  Corrosive  sublimate 
(2.5  ounces  in  2  gallons  hot  water;  after  12  hours  dilute 
to  15  gallons;  immerse  !/•£  hours  and  dry.  Formalin 
(better— not  poisonous)  8  fl.  ounces  formalin  (40  per  cent 
formic  aldehyde)  with  15  gallons  water.  Soak  2  hours. 
Diseases  in  general,  Vt.  No.  72.  Very  good  re'sume'  of  ten 

years'  work. 
Insects,  Me.  No.  68. 


310         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

SWEET    POTATO 

A  warm  sunny  climate,  long  season,  loose  warm  soil, 
liberal  supply  of  moisture  in  the  growing  season  and  a 
less  supply  when  the  tubers  are  maturing  —  these  are 
some  of  the  requirements  of  a  good  sweet  potato  crop. 
The  plant  is  tender  to  frost.  It  is  propagated  by 
means  of  its  tubers,  usually  from  the  slips  or  cuttings 
which  arise  when  the  tubers  are  planted  in  beds  or 
frames. 

The  sweet  potato  is  one  of  the  leading  crops  of  the 
South,  and  it  is  extensively  grown  as  far  north  as  the 
sandy  lands  of  New  Jersey.  In  the  northern  states  it 
is  often  grown  in  a  small  way  on  ridges  in  the  garden. 

It  is  the  custom  to  grow  all  varieties  from  "slips  "  or 
"draws,"  although  the  Spanish  variety  may  be  cut  and 
planted  like  the  Irish  potato.  The  slips  are  grown  in 
beds  and  transplanted  to  the  field.  Many  growers  prefer 
to  plant  only  a  small  part  of  the  field  with  the  slips 
and  the  remainder  with  the  prunings  from  the  growth 
of  these  slips.  Propagation  is  usually  accomplished  by 
means  of  slips  and  cuttings.  (1)  Slips  are  the  sprouts 
which  arise  from  tubers  when  they  are  planted  or 
buried.  Tubers  of  medium  size  are  laid  on  a  mild  hot- 
bed and  covered  two  inches  deep  with  loose  soil  or  leaf- 
mold.  In  the  extreme  south  the  tubers  are  sometimes 
"bedded"  in  loose,  warm  earth,  without  bottom  heat, 
but  unless  the  weather  is  settled  the  tubers  are  likely  to 
rot  and  the  vegetation  is  slow.  When  the  shoots  are 
3-5  inches  high  they  are  broken  off  next  the  tuber  and 
set  in  the  field.  Roots  will  have  formed  while  they  were 


Sweet   Potato  311 

still  attached  to  the  tuber.  Two  to  four  crops  of 
"slips  "  or  "draws  "  may  be  taken  from  one  tuber.  The 
tuber  is  usually  planted  whole;  but  large  and  sound 
tubers  may  be  cut  in  two  lengthwise  and  the  cut  side 
laid  downwards,  although  this  treatment  invites  decay. 
(2)  Cuttings  are  made  from  the  ends  of  vines.  They 
are  taken  from  the  earliest -planted  or  most  vigorous 
vines ;  sometimes  a  few  vines  are  set  very  early  for  the 
particular  purpose  of  securing  plants  for  the  remainder 
of  the  field.  The  cutting  is  usually  10-12  inches  long. 
The  leaves  are  removed,  except  at  the  tip,  and  the 
cutting  is  buried  directly  in  the  soil  where  it  is  to  grow 
permanently,  being  laid  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position, 
with  only  an  inch  or  so  of  the  tip  projecting. 

The  sweet  potato  requires  a  deep,  well-drained,  sandy 
loam.  The  soil  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  well- 
rotted  manure.  Wood  ashes  is  often  found  to  be  a  most 
excellent  fertilizer.  The  soil  should  be  well  prepared 
before  the  slips  are  set,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of 
cultivating  close  to  the  roots.  Clean  tillage  should  be 
practiced  until  the  ground  is  too  thickly  covered  by  the 
vines.  After  this  large  weeds  should  be  removed  with 
hand  tools.  The  slips  are  set  in  rows  about  3  feet  apart, 
and  the  slips  themselves  are  18  inches  apart. 

The  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  grown  will 
determine  very  largely  the  variety,  and  the  variety  will 
determine  the  care  necessary;  e.  g.,  the  Red  Bermuda 
will  grow  in  almost  any  soil  and  under  very  adverse 
conditions  of  climate  and  moisture,  but  the  quality  can- 
not be  compared  to  that  of  the  so-called  yams. 

Immediately  after  the  first  frost  the  potatoes  should 


312         The    Principles  oj    Vegetable -Gardening 

be  gathered.  A  very  common  method  is  to  clear  away 
the  vines  and  then  to  plow  up  the  potatoes  with  a  "  hill 
sweep"  (2 -winged  furrowing  plow).  They  are  gathered 
into  small  piles,  where  they  remain  until  removed  from 

the  field.  The  common 
method  of  storing  is  to 
bank  them  in  a  cone- 
shaped  pile.  This  pile 
is  then  covered  with 
hay,  and  this  is  thatched 
with  cornstalks,  or  cov- 
ered shingle  -  like  with 

Fig.  88.    Vineless  sweet  potato. 

pine    bark.      It  should 
be  kept  dry  and  should  be  on  a  slightly  elevated  place. 

One  bushel  of  ordinary  sweet  potatoes  will  give  from  3,000  to 
5,000  plants,  if  the  sprouts  are  taken  off  twice.  The  plants  are 
usually  set  in  drills,  which  are  2X~3  feet  apart.  The  plants  stand 
12-18  inches  apart  in  the  drill.  At  18  x  36  inches.  9,680  plants  are 
required  for  an  acre.  These  should  be  produced  by  2-3  bushels  of 
"seed"  tubers.  An  average  good  yield  of  sweet  potatoes  is  200- 
400  bushels  per  acre.  Yields  twice  as  high  as  these  are  sometimes 
secured. 

The  sweet  potato  is  one  of  the  Morning-glory  and  Moon- 
flower  tribe,  Ipomoea  Batatas.  It  has  been  cultivated  from  very 
remote  times  by  the  aborigines.  It  is  probably  native  to  tropical 
America,  although  it  is  widely  distributed  in  tropical  countries. 
The  top  is  a  trailing  vine,  which  roots  at  the  joints  and  bears 
variable  but  mostly  halberd -form  leaves.  Some  varieties  have 
longer  vines  or  tops  than  others,  and  some  have  short  not- running 
tops,  as  the  "Vineless  Yam,"  now  popular  in  the  South  (Fig.  88). 
The  sweet  potato  blooms  only  rarely,  and  even  then  it  may  not 
produce  seeds. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  grown  very  extensively  in  the  United 
States,  and  they  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  being  one 


Sweet   Potato  313 

of  the  common  foods  in  all  northern  cities.  They  are  little  known 
to  the  people  of  central  Europe.  Nearly  50,000,000  bushels  is 
produced  annually  in  the  United  States.  The  largest  quantities 
are  grown  in  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  Texas,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Virginia,  New  Jersey.  As  with  other  crops,  every  state  pro- 
duces the  best  quality,  depending  on  where  one  lives.  Certain 
varieties  of  sweet  potatoes  are  called  yams  in  the  southern  states, 
but  the  word  "  yam  "  properly  belongs  to  a  very  different  kind  of 
plants,  the  Dioscoreas. 

In  the  South  a  soft,  sugary  sweet  potato  is  desired.  In  the  North 
a  firm,  dry  tuber  is  wanted.  Spanish,  Sugar,  Barbadoes,  and  Hy- 
man  are  popular  far  south.  Nansemond  and  Jersey  are  prized  for 
the  North.  The  vineless  (Fig.  88),  a  variety  with  short  tops  or 
vines  ("vineless"  meaning  "not  running,"  or  "bushy"),,  is  now  a 
very  popular  kind.  Price  gives  the  alternative  of  two  schemes  for 
classification  of  varieties  of  sweet  potatoes  : 

A.  Leaves  entire  (not  lobed). 

AA.  Leaves  shouldered  (lobed  or  halberd-shape  at  base). 
AAA.  Leaves  deeply  cut  or  lobed. 

The  second  classification  is  based  on  the  tuber: 

A.  Tubers  white -skinned. 
AA.  Tubers  dull  straw  color. 
AAA.  Tubers  light  red. 
AAAA.  Tubers  purple. 

There  are  several  serious  fungous  diseases  of  sweet  potato  vsee 
bulletins  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.).  The  leaf -blight  may  be  held  in  check 
by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  the  tuber  diseases  are 
treated  to  best  advantage  by  rotation  of  crops  and  using  only 
healthy  tubers  for  seed. 

There  are  two  special  books  on  sweet  potatoes,  by  Fitz  and 
Price.  See  list,  pp.  251,  259.  For  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer. 
Nat.,  August,  1891,  pp.  698,  699. 


CHAPTER  XI 

BULB    CROPS 

Onion,  Garlic, 

Ciboule  or  Welsh  Onion,  Give. 

Shallot, 
Leek, 

All  the  bulb  crops  are  hardy,  require  a  cool  season 
and  moist,  rich  soil  with  a  loose  surface.  Usually  they 
are  not  seed-bed  crops.  They  are  used  both  as  main -sea- 
son and  secondary  crops.  They  are  propagated  by  both 
seeds  and  bulbs.  These  crops  are  grown  chiefly  for  the 
underground  bulbs  ;  but  the  leaves  are  often  used  in 
stews  and  seasonings. 

The  onion  Is  the  only  commercially  important  plant  in  the 
above  group  in  this  country.  Garlic,  leek  and  the  others  are 
known  chiefly  to  citizens  of  foreign  birth  or  to  those  who  grow 
products  for  the  large  cities. 

The  leek  is  the  most  important  of  these  minor  bulb  crops,  and 
it  should  be  better  known.  Its  flavor  is  usually  milder  than  that 
of  onions.  The  soft  bulb  and  thick  leaves  are  used  in  cookery, 
mostly  as  a  seasoning.  It  is  grown  from  seeds  (Fig.  89)  sown 
early  in  the  spring.  It  usually  requires  the  entire  season.  It  is 
stored  green,  after  the  manner  of  celery,  being  set  in  the  ground 
in  the  pit  or  cool  cellar. 

Garlic  is  a  plant  of  very  strong  flavor.  It  is  propagated  by 
"cloves,"  which  are  parts  or  bulbels  of  compound  bulbs.  The 
clove  is  comparable  to  one  of  the  cores  of  the  multiplier  onion. 
The  cloves  are  planted  in  early  spring,  and  the  bulbs  should  ma- 
ture by  midsummer  or  fall. 

(314) 


Onion  -Like    Plan  is 


315 


Shallot  is  very  like  garlic  in  manner  of  growth,  but  the  cloves 
are  separate  at  maturity,  whereas  they  are  inclosed  in  a  common 
skin  in  the  garlic.  They  are  mild  in  flavor.  Cultivation  as  for  garlic. 

Ciboule,  or  Welsh  onion,  is  like  a  common  onion  without  the 
bulb.  It  is  grown  for  its  leaves,  which  are  used  in  seasoning.  It 
is  mild  in  flavor.  Propagated  from  seeds  as  onio'ns  are. 


Fig.  89.    Leek  seedlings.    Natural  size. 

Cive  is  a  small  perennial  plant  growing  in  dense  tufts  and  not 
producing  bulbs.  The  leaves  are  used  for  seasoning.  It  is  per- 
fectly hardy.  It  is  a  neat  and  interesting  plant  for  a  permanent 
edging  along  the  garden  walk.  It  is  propagated  by  division  of  the 
clumps. 

The  onion -like  plants  may  be  contrasted  as  follows  : 
A.  Plant  truly  perennial  — 

Cive,  Allium  Schcenoprasum.  Lvs.  slender,  hollow. 
Native  to  N.  Europe  and  the  northern  parts  of  N. 
America. 


316         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

AA.  Plant  practically  annual  or  biennial  — 
B.  Leaves  cylindrical,  hollow — 

Welsh  onion,  Allium  fistulosum.  Not  producing 
large  or  evident  bulbs.  Siberia. 

Shallot,  Allium  Ascalonicum.  Producing  pointed 
oblong  bulbs  in  clusters;  leaves  small.  Syria. 

Onion,  Allium    Cepa.     Producing   bulbs  of   many 
sizes,  shapes  and  colors.     Native  to  southwest- 
ern Asia.  Top  onion,  var.  bulbellifera.  .Multiplier 
onion,  var.  multiplicans, 
BB.  Leaves  flattisli,  not  hollow  — 

Leek,  Allium  Porrum.  Strong-growing,  with  a 
single  bulb  which  is  little  thicker  than  the  neck. 
Native  to  Europe. 

Garlic,  Allium  sativum.  Bulbs  small,  dividing  into 
bulbels  or  cloves.  Native  to  Europe. 


ONION 

Cool,  rather  moist  and  level  land,  soil  ivith  the  best 
possible  surface  tilth  and  containing  much  quickly  avail- 
able plant-food,  careful  attention  to  the  selection  of  seed, 
the  most  perfect  surface  tillage,  are  some  of  the  essentials 
in  the  growing  of  a  good  crop  of  onions. 

Onion  crops  are  of  two  general  kinds:  the  main-  or 
late -season  crop,  and  the  early  spring  crop.  In  the 
main -season  crop,  the  onions  are  sold  in  their  dry  state 
and  are  a  staple  product  in  market  quotations.  In  the 
early -season  crop,  the  onions  are  sold  in  their  immature 
or  green  state  and  mostly  tied  in  bunches. 

The  main -season  onion  crop  is  grown  from  seeds, 
and  these  are  sown  directly  in  the  field  where  the  crop 
is  to  grow.  (Fig.  90.)  The  early  spring  crop  is  grown 
from  either  seeds  or  bulbs,  usually  from  bulbs.  These 


Propagation    of   Onions 


317 


bulbs  are  of  three  kinds:  "top  onions,"  or  bulblets  that 
are  produced  on  the  top  of  the  flower  stalk,  in  the  place 
of  flowers;  "sets"  (Fig.  91),  which  are  small  onions, 
arrested  in  their  growth;  "potato  onions,"  or  "multi- 


Onion  seedlings.    Natural  size. 


pliers,"  which  are  compound  bulbs,  each  component  part 
forming  a  new  bulb-  The  top  onions  (sometimes  called 
"tree  onions")  and  the  multipliers  are  distinct  races  or 
types  of  onions,  but  sets  are  only  the  partially  grown 
bulbs  of  any  common  onion  which  it  is  desired  to  propa- 
gate in  this  way.  To  raise  sets,  seeds  are  sown  very 


318         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 


thickly  on  a  rather  light  and  dry  piece  of  ground.  The 
plants  soon  crowd,  and  by  midsummer  the  tops  begin  to 
die  for  lack  of  food,  moisture  and  room.  The  bulbs 
should  not  be  more  than  one -half  or  three-fourths  inch 
in  diameter.  They  are  cured  and  stored  as  ordinary 
onions  are.  The  following  spring,  when  planted,  they 


Fig.  91.    Commercial  onion  sets. 

resume  growth,  and  in  a  very  short  time  give  edible 
onions.  Fig.  92  shows  a  multiplier  onion.  A  cross-sec- 
tion (Fig.  93)  shows  that  it  has  three  "hearts"  or  "cores." 
As  these  cores  grow,  each  gives  rise  to  a  separate  bulb 
(Fig.  94) .  If  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground,  each  part 
develops  two  or  more  cores  ;  and  so  the  multiplication 
continues.  The  top  onion  also  starts  into  growth  quickly 
in  spring  and  soon  makes  an  edible  bulb.  If  the  bulb 


New    Onion    Culture  319 

is  planted  out  the  following  year,  it  sends  up  a  stalk 

and  produces  a  new  crop  of  "tops." 

Very  recently,  early  onions  have  been 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent  from 
transplanted  seedlings. 
This  method  is  known 
as  "  the  new  onion  cul- 
ture." The  plants 
are  started  January, 

A  mulSiie9r2  onion.  February  Or  March  in  Cross-seSfonof  a  mnl- 
About  X  natural  size,  hotbeds  Or  the  f  Ore-  tiplier  onion' 

ing- house,  and  are  transplanted  to  the  open  when  the 
season  will  permit.  The  large  quick-growing  southern 
types  of  onions,  as  Gibraltar  and  Prizetaker,  may 
be  grown  to  perfection  in  the  North  by  this  method, 
whereas  the  season  may  not  be  long  enough  for  plants 
started  in  the  open. 

In  the  growing  of  the  main  season  crop,  earliness  is 
not  particularly  desired,  and  there  is  less  necessity,  there- 
fore, of  making  heavy  applications  of  fertilizers  which 
are  quickly  available.  All  onion  lands  need  to  be  well 
fertilized,  however,  particularly  with  the  materials  rather 
rich  in  potash.  Onions  are  relatively  surface  feeders, 
therefore  the  top  of  the  soil  should  be  very  finely  pre- 
pared, and  the  fertilizer  should  not  be  plowed  under. 
Every  attention  should  be  given  to  preventing  the  soil 
from  baking  and  to  keeping  the  surface  in  uniformly 
good  tilth.  Soils  that  become  dry  and  hard  produce 
a  poor  crop  of  onions.  The  best  soils  are  those  that 
are  naturally  loose  and  moist,  therefore  lowland  areas 
are  nearly  always  selected  for  the  growing  of  onions. 


320         The  ' Principles   of    Vegetable- Gardening 


Reclaimed  marshes,  from  which  the  roots  and  peat  have 
been  removed,  are  excellent.  It  is  also  of  great  advan- 
tage to  have  level  land,  as  it  facilitates  the  use  of  the 
hand  tools  and  the  finger  work  which  are  so  essential  in 

the  growing  of  a  good 
crop  of  onions. 

It  is  customary  to 
prepare  onion  land  the 
previous  fall.  This 
not  only  insures  earli- 
ness  but  it  also  allows 
the  surface  to  become 
weathered  and  com- 
minuted so  that  it  is 
in  perfect  condition  for 
the  seeds  as  soon  as 
the  season  opens.  All 
clods  and  stones  should 
be  removed  by  a  gar- 
den rake,  horse  weeder, 
or  other  fine- toothed  tool.  The  land  should  have  been  in 
good  cultivation  for  some  years  previous,  if  possible,  in 
order  that  it  may  not  contain  seeds  of  weeds;  for  weeds 
are  very  difficult  to  eradicate  in  an  onion  bed.  Raw  and 
coarse  stable  manures  are  rarely  used  on  onion  lands  be- 
cause they  make  the  land  rough  and  keep  it  too  open, 
and  they  usually  bring  in  seeds  of  weeds.  Lowlands 
usually  have  sufficient  humus,  but  if  they  have  not,  it 
may  be  supplied  by  top -dressings  of  old  and  fine  ma- 
nure. Commercial  fertilizers  are  usually  to  be  advised 
in  preference  to  fresh  stable  manures.  It  is  customary 


Fig.  94.  Multipliei  onion  beginning  to 
separate  into  its  parts,  Each  part 
will  produce  an  onion. 


Onion    Seed  321 

to  apply  wood  ashes  as  a  surface  dressing  either  in  the 
fall  or  spring.  This  is  likely  to  improve  the  texture  of 
the  soil  and  it  adds  an  available  supply  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  Lands  that  contain  relatively  little 
vegetable  matter  and  which  are  rather  dry  in  spring 
may  receive  an  application  of  some  soluble  nitrogenous 
fertilizer.  Onion  seed  germinates  rather  slowly  and  the 
plantlets  are  delicate  and  slender -rooted.  The  plants 
must  take  hold  at  once  if  they  are  to  make  a  good 
growth.  The  onion -bed  condition  of  tilth  is*  considered 
by  gardeners  to  be  the  measure  of  good  treatment  of 
land.  There  is  no  vegetable  -  garden  crop  raised  on  a 
large  scale  which  demands  such  careful  treatment  of  the 
surface  soil  as  the  onion. 

Onion  seed  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
possible.  This  is  because  the  onion  delights  in  a 
cool  season,  and  also  because  the  plants  should  become 
established  before  the  dry,  hot  weather  of  summer.  In 
garden  practice,  the  seed  should  be  sown  thick,  for  there 
is  likely  to  be  failure  of  the  seeds  to  germinate;  and  if 
the  first  sowing  does  not  give  a  good  stand  it  is  rarely 
advisable  to  make  a  second  sowing  because  of  the  late- 
ness of  the  season.  In  field  culture,  thinning  is  ex- 
pensive, and  one  must  take  great  care  to  secure  good 
and  viable  seed.  The  seed  is  sown  with  various  kinds 
of  hand  seed-drills,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  95. 

The  character  of  the  onion  crop  depends  very  largely 
on  the  seed  stock.  The  onion  is  a  plant  that  quickly 
runs  down  or  deteriorates  if  the  seed  stock  is  not  care- 
fully selected  and  grown  Cheap  onion  seed  is  always 
to  be  avoided.  Those  who  make  a  business  of  growing 


322         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

onions  prefer  to  buy  seed  from  parties  whom  they  know, 
even  though  it  costs  twice  as  much  as  the  ordinary  seed 
of  the  markets.  Poor  seed  may  mean  mixed  varieties, 
lack  of  uniformity  in  the  crop,  the  production  of 
scullions  or  onions  that  do  not  make  large  bulbs. 
It  is  very  important  that  onion  rows  be  perfectly 


Fig.  95.    A  four-row  onion  seeder. 

straight,  as  this  facilitates  tillage.  Fig.  32,  p.  118. 
Usually  the  rows  are  placed  about  14  inches  apart,  and 
the  tillage  is  done  by  means  of  hand  wheel -hoes.  If 
the  land  is  rough,  hard  and  uneven,  these  hoes  cannot 
be  worked  to  the  best  advantage.  The  land  should  be 
so  finely  pulverized  that  the  lumps  and  clods  will  not 
roll  on  the  young  plants.  Usually  the  onion  patch  will 


Onion   Harvest  323 

need  to  be  weeded  by  hand  once  or  twice  early  in  the 
season;  although  in  land  which  is  very  clean  and  free  of 
weeds  this  expense  may  not  be  necessary.  The  better 
the  preparation  of  the  land  the  year  before,  the  less 
will  be  the  trouble  and  expense  of  growing  the  onion 
crop. 

On  some  soils  onions  tend  to  run  too  much  to  top, 
particularly  on  those  which  have  been  newly  turned  over 
from  sod,  or  which  are  wet,  or  those  which  have  re- 
ceived too  great  an  application  of  rough  stable  manures. 
Dry  soils  and  dry  seasons  tend  to  produce  small  top 
growth  and  a  relatively  large  bulb,  although  the  plants 
may  mature  so  early  in  the  season  that  the  bulbs  do  not 
reach  the  actual  size  that  they  attain  on  moister  land. 
If  the  tops  are  still  rank  and  green  late  in  August,  or 
early  in  September,  and  show  little  tendency  of  ripening 
naturally,  it  is  well  to  break  them  down  in  order  to 
check  the  growth.  A  common  way  of  doing  this  is  to 
roll  a  barrel  lengthwise  the  rows.  The  best  onion 
crops,  however,  are  those  that  ripen  naturally. 
Late  growth  is  sometimes  due  to  the  seed.  If  the  seed 
has  been  grown  for  a  number  of  seasons  in  a  long 
season  and  moist  climate,  -as  in  England,  the  plants  will 
tend  to  grow  very  late  in  the  season. 

The  onion  is  a  somewhat  difficult  crop  to  handle  and 
to  store  unless  the  fall  season  is  warm  and  one  has  good 
facilities  for  handling  the  bulbs.  The  onions  are 
usually  allowed  to  dry  or  cure  for  a  day  or  two  before 
they  are  put  into  storage.  If  they  cannot  be  handled 
in  the  field,  they  should  be  cured  under  cover,  for  the 
bulbs  should  be  dry  and  free  from  dirt  when  they  are 


324         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

sent  to  market  or  put  into  winter  storage.  Curing  under 
cover  is  more  expensive  than  curing  in  the  field,  but  it 
usually  gives  brighter -colored  bulbs  and  is  to  be  advised 
when  one  caters  to  a  special  market.  The  tops  must  be 
removed.  It  is  customary  to  pull  the  onions  before  the 
topping  is  done.  Three  or  four  rows  of  onions  are  thrown 
into  one,  making  a  small  windrow.  After  they  have 


Fig.  96.    A  New  York  onion  field  at  harvest. 

cured  for  two  or  three  days,  the  tops  are  removed  with 
strong  shears,  or  usually  with  a  shoe  knife.  Fig.  96. 
The  tops  are  cut  about  one-half  inch  above  the  bulb. 
If  they  are  cut  shorter  than  this  the  bulb  is  likely  to 
rot  or  shrivel,  and  if  they  are  cut  much  longer  the  bulb 
has  an  untidy  appearance.  The  top  should  be  cut  off 
clean,  leaving  no  ragged  ends,  and  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  tear  the  covering  of  the  bulb  itself.  Some  growers 
cut  the  tops  from  the  bulbs  before  the  crop  is  harvested. 


Onian    Storing 


325 


This  may  be  done  if  the  tops  have  died  naturally.     It  is 
usually  rather  more  expeditious  than  the  other  way. 

If  the  crop  is  uneven,  as  will  usually  be  the  case,  it  is 
advisable  to  grade  the  bulbs  if  the  best  prices  are  to  be 
secured.  All  small,  inferior,  misshapen  bulbs  are  re- 
moved, and  also  those  that  are  of  unusual  color. 


Fig.  97.    Sorting  onions  in  the  field. 

A  good  means  of  grading  onion  bulbs  is  to  run  them 
over  a  rack  with  slat  bottom,  shown  in  Fig.  97,  the 
slats  being  at  such  distance  apart  as  to  allow  the  large 
bulbs  to  pass  over,  but  to  catch  all  the  small  ones  and 
to  drop  them  through  the  spaces.  The  large  bulbs  are 
worked  over  the  end  of  the  table  into  baskets  or  barrels. 
Mature  onions  ordinarily  will  not  stand  freezing  and 
thawing.  Therefore,  if  they  are  stored  for  the  winter, 


326         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

they  must  be  put  in  a  frost -proof  place.  They  must  be 
kept  dry.  Winter  storehouses  in  the  North  are  often  pro- 
vided with  fire  heat.  Onions  may  be  frozen  with  safety, 
however,  provided  they  do  not  thaw  out  until  spring  and 
the  thawing  is  then  gradual.  They  may  be  stored  in 
the  loft  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  where  the  sun 
does  not  strike  the  roof,  and  covered  several  feet  thick 
with  straw  or  loose  hay.  In  the  spring  the  straw  is 
gradually  removed  and  they  are  allowed  to  thaw  slowly. 
When  the  winter  temperature  is  very  uniform,  this 
method  of  keeping  onions  may  be  safe;  but  in  regions 
in  which  there  are  great  fluctuations  in  winter  tempera- 
ture it  is  not  to  be  recommended.  In  fact,  it  is  always 
hazardous. 

Most  onion -growers  prefer  to  sell  the  crop  in  the 
fall.  Usually  it  is  put  in  temporary  storage  in  open 
sheds,  much  as  corn  is  stored  in  the  crib.  One  of  these 
sheds  is  shown  in  Fig.  98.  There  are  wide  spaces  in 
the  outside  boarding  of  the  shed,  and  the  floor  is  raised 
a  few  inches  above  the  ground  and  cracks  are  left  in  it. 
The  eaves  should  project  enough  to  carry  all  water  clear 
of  the  sides.  If  the  onions  are  dry  and  clean  when 
put  into  storage  and  the  tops  have  been  carefully  re- 
moved, the  onions  may  be  stored  several  feet  deep  in 
narrow  bins  or  cribs  of  this  kind. 

Sow  onion  seed  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be 
made  ready.  In  mild  climates,  seed  is  sometimes  sown  in  the 
fall.  Sets,  tops,  and  multipliers  may  be  planted  at  intervals  until 
steady  warm  spring  weather  comes. 

One  ounce  of  seed  is  sown  in  about  150  feet  of  drill,  and  3%  to 
5  pounds  to  the  acre.  A  good  crop  of  onions  is  300-400  bushels  to 
the  acre,  but  600-800  are  secured  under  the  very  best  conditions. 


Onions 


327 


The  two  old-time  standard  varieties  are  Yellow  Danvers  and 
Bed  Wethersfield.  At  the  present  time,  however,  a  true  globe- 
shaped  onion  is  the  most  popular  in  the  large  markets.  The 
White,  Red,  and  Yellow  Globe  are  now  the  great  commercial  varie- 
ties. Southport  Globe  is  another  name  for  these  varieties.  The 
handsome  color  secured  on  the  bulbs  at  Southport,  Conn.,  is  secured 
by  curing  under  cover  away  from  the  sun.  Other  popular  onions 
for  the  North  are  Michigan  Globe,  Queen,  Portugal,  Pearl,  Barletta, 


Fig.  98.    An  onion  shed.    The  onions  are  stored  in  bins, 
along  the  sides,  like  corn. 

Bermuda;  various  small  Italian  sorts  are  popular  for  home  use. 
For  large  late  varieties,  some  of  the  giant  Italian  sorts  are  desirable, 
and  the  flavor  is  mild. 

"Growing  onions  from  seedlings  started  in  the  seed  bed  and 
transplanted  to  the  field  has  within  the  last  few  years  gained 
considerable  popularity  at  the  East  under  the  name  of  'the  new 
onion  culture.'  The  procedure  by  transplanting  is  probably  new 
as  claimed  in  this  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  but,  as 
is  shown  by  Wickson  in  his  book  on  <  California  Vegetables,'  it  is 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  old  in  California,  and  was  brought 
to  this  state  by  growers  from  the  south  of  Europe,  where  it  is 
probably  a  time;honored  practice.  Transplanting  of  autumn-grown 
seedlings  is  much  more  popular  in  California  than  growing  from 
'sets,'  and  is  largely  relied  upon  for  the  early  crop.  The  practice 
could  often  be  more  widely  followed  with  profit,  as  this  spring's 
experience  shows.  Very  profitable  rates  could  have  been  gained 
for  a  month  or  more  back  for  early  maturing  onions,  grown  on 


328         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

light  soils  in  parts  of  the  state  with  a  warm  winter  and  moderate 
rains."— Pacific  Rural  Press,  May  5,  1900.  See  Huntley,  Bull.  22, 
Idaho  Exp.  Sta.,  for  recent  experiments  on  the  transplanting  of 
onions. 

In  1889  (Annals  Hort.)  78  varieties  of  "seed"  onions  were 
offered  by  American  dealers,  and  also  about  twenty  kinds  of  mul- 
tipliers, potato  onions  and  sets.  For  purposes  of  careful  scientific 
study,  the  varieties  may  be  classified  into  geographical  races,  but 
for  purposes  of  description  they  may  be  assembled  into  groups 
characterized  by  such  arbitrary  features  as  form  and  color  of  bulb. 
Goff  (6th  Eept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  for  the  year  1887,  pp.  190- 
214)  classifies  first  by  shape  of  bulb  and  then  by  color.  He 
makes  four  primary  groups:  bulb  oblate,  spherical,  top-shape, 
oval  or  pear- shape.  Each  of  these  groups  is  divided  into  three 
sections:  color  white,  yellower  brownish,  red  or  reddish.  Another 
classification  (Bailey,  Bull.  31,  Mich.  Agric.  College,  1887)  makes 
three  primary  sections  on  methods  of  propagation :  propagated  by 
division  (multipliers),  by  bulblets  or  "tops,"  by  seeds  (or  sets). 
The  last  section  (seed  onions)  is  divided  into  bulbs  silvery  white 
and  bulbs  colored,  and  these  groups  are  divided  on  shape  of  bulb. 

The  maggot  is  a  serious  onion  pest.  It  burrows  in  the  root. 
There  is  no  practical  means  of  combating  it  except  to  use  infested 
lands  for  other  crops.  The  rust  and  smut  diseases  may  be  held  in 
check  to  some  extent  by  Bordeaux  mixture  spray.  Rotation  is  the 
best  remedy  for  smut.  Following  are  references  to  recent  experi- 
ment station  literature  on  onion  troubles : 

Onion  Thrip,  N.  Y.  Bull.  83,  p.  680,  with  illus. ;  Iowa  Bull.  27, 
p.  139:  Fla.  Bull.  46:  Kerosene  emulsion,  1  to  10. 

Downy  mildew,  Wis.  Eept.  1,  pp.  38  44,  desc.  and  illus.; 
Conn.  Eept.  13,  pp.  155,  156;  Vt.  Eept.  10,  pp.  Cl,  62. 

Eemove  all  blighted  vegetable  matter.     Weak  Bordeaux. 

Smut,  Conn.  Eept.  13,  pp..  119-148,  desc.  and  illus. ;  Conn. 
Eept.  19,  pp.  176-182:  Transplant  seedlings  or  use  sets. 

The  onion  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  For 
history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Naturalist,  Jan.,  1890,  pp.  36-40. 

Special  treatises  on  onion-growing  in  North  America  are: 
Greiner's  "Onions  for  Profit,"  and  "The  New  Onion  Culture;" 
Greiner  and  Arlie's  "How  to  Grow  Onions;"  Orange  Judd  Com- 
pany's "Onion  Book." 


CHAPTER  XII 

COLE  CROPS 

Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  broccoli, 

Kale,  borecole  and  collards,       Kohlrabi. 
Brussels  sprouts, 

All  cole  crops  are  hardy  and  demand  a  cool  season  and 
soil,  and  abundance  of  moisture  at  the  root.  Except  the 
kales  and  kohlrabi,  all  are  seed-bed  crops,  and  even  kales 
are  often  started  in  beds.  Each  plant  requires  considerable 
space  in  order  to  develop  well.  Cole  crops  are  grown  for 
the  vegetative  aerial  parts  rather  than  for  fruits  or  roots. 

CABBAGE 

Cool  soil  which  is  deep  and  has  power  to  hold  much 
moisture,  continuous  growth  from  start  to  finish,  frequent 
and  thorough  surface  tillage,  extra  care  in  the  selection  of 
seed, avoiding  the  root  maagot,  club  root,  and  rot  by  means 
of  rotation,  destroying  the  cabbage- worm  as  soon  as  it 
appears, — these  are  essentials  in  cabbage  growing.  Cab- 
bage is  grown  for  the  dense  rosette  or  head  of  leaves. 

Young  cabbage  plants  will  stand  frost  if  properly 
grown.  For  the  early  crop,  the  plants  are  raised  under 
glass.  For  the  main -season  or  late  crop  they  may  be 
started  in  seed-beds  in  the  open.  Seeds  for  late  cabbages 
are  sometimes  planted  directly  in  the  field  where  the 

(329) 


330         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

crop  is  to  stand,  but  this  is  unwise,  for  the  young 
plants  cannot  receive  proper  care  and  the  bugs  get  them. 
See  that  the  young  plants  are  stocky.  It  is  customary 
to  set  the  plants  in  the  ground  up  to  the  first  true  leaves, 
and  gardeners  think  that  such  setting  gives  better  heads, 
but  this  belief  was  not  verified  in  three  years'  tests  at 
Cornell  (summary  in  Bull.  37) .  It  is  important  that  the 
young  plants  make  continuous  growth,  for  if  stunted 
they  do  not  give  as  good  crops.  The  seeds  germinate 
quickly.  Fig.  99. 

Make  the  land  rich  and  keep  the  cultivator  mov- 
ing. Use  every  means  to  save  the  soil  moisture.  If 
the  nearly  mature  heads  cease  growing  and  are  then 
started  into  growth  again  by  means  of  tillage  or  rains, 
they  are  likely  to  crack. 

In  storing  cabbages,  it  is  imperative  that  they  are  not 
infested  with  the  black-rot  fungus.  Keep  the  water  from 
the  middle  of  the  head,  and  then  keep  the  heads  as  cool 
as  possible,  without  actually  freezing  hard,  and  always 
prevent  drying  out. 

The  treatment  of  all  cole  crops  may  be  compared  to  that  of 
cabbage.  The  story  of  growing  a  crop  of  cabbages  is  well  told 
in  the  following  sketch  by  the  late  J.  M.  Smith,  Green  Bay, 
Wisconsin,  who  was  one  of  the  most  expert  market-gardeners  of  his 
region.  The  article  was  written  for  the  author  some  time  ago,  and 
has  never  been  published.  "  The  longer  I  live,"  wrote  Mr.  Smith  at 
the  time,  then  in  the  midst  of  a  serious  drought,  "the  more  firmly 
am  I  convinced  that  plenty  of  manure  and  then  the  most  com- 
plete system  of  cultivation  make  an  almost  complete  protection 
against  droughts  of  an  ordinary  character."  Mr.  Smith's  artiple 
now  follows: 

Importance  of  the  Crop. — There  is  probably  no  article  in  the 
entire  vegetable  list  of  which  the  consumption  has  increased  so 


Cabbage    Culture 


331 


rapidly  within  the  last  ten  years  as  that  of  the  cabbage.  A  few 
years  ago  the  consumption  of  sauer-kraut  was  confined  princi- 
pally to  Germans  and  other  foreign -born  citizens.  Its  use  has 
not  only  increased  among  them,  but  our  native  Americans  are 
now  using  it  largely.  Tens  of  thousands  of  barrels  are  manufac- 
tured yearly,  where  a  few  hundred  barrels  would  have  supplied 
the  demand  twenty  years  ago.  A  very  large  amount  of  food  can 
be  grown  per  acre  with  cabbage,  and  when  grown  it  is  valuable 
either  for  man  or  beast.  For  instance,  if  an  acre  were  set  with 


Fig.  99.    Cabbage  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

some  of  the  compact,  close-growing  varieties  requiring  10,000 
plants,  the  land  being  well  enriched  and  then  thoroughly  culti- 
vated, it  would  not  be  unreasonable  to  expect  the  plants  to  aver- 
age five  pounds  each,  including  the  outside  leaves.  Here  are 
twenty- five  tons  of  food  per  acre  if  used  for  cattle,  and  about 
half  or  two-thirds  of  that  amount  if  used  for  man.  If  some  of 
the  large-leaved  varieties,  like  the  Premium  Flat  Dutch,  are  grown, 
a  much  greater  amount  of  food  for  stock  may  be  raised  per  acre. 
Even  when  it  is  grown  for  market,  the  large  quantities  of  waste 
leaves  are  well  worth  saving  for  stock  food. 

Soil. — I  prefer  a  sandy  loam,  rather  heavy  than    light,    and 
rather  damp  than  dry,  but  it  must  be  thoroughly  drained.    Cabbage 


332         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

is  a  gross  feeder,  and  hence  plenty  of  manure  is  a  necessity.  Forty 
good  two -horse  loads  per  acre  is  not  too  much  if  one  expects 
large  crops,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  making  the  land  too  rich. 
I  prefer  to  put  about  half  of  the  manure  on  the  land  and  plow 
under,  then  spread  on  as  much  more  and  harrow  in  thoroughly, 
unless  the  manure  is  coarse,  in  which  case  I  would  plow  all  under. 

Raising  the  Plants  and  Setting  Them.—^We  commence  setting 
about  as  soon  as  we  get  the  ground  in  good  condition  in  the 
spring.  Sometimes  we  have  a  hard  frost  after  our  first  plants 
are  set,  which  will  of  course  put  them  back  a  few  days,  but 
will  not  seriously  damage  the  crop  if  the  plants  have  been 
properly  hardened  in  the  hotbeds.  This  hardening  is  done 
by  removing  the  sash  every  day  for  a  week  or  ten  days 
before  taking  out  the  plants,  at  least  part  of  the  day,  and  if  the 
nights  are  not  too  cool  leaving  them  off  during  the  night,  thus 
accustoming  the  plants  to  the  open  air.  We  continue  setting 
plants  from  the  early  spring  until  about  the  15th  of  July.  For 
the  last  date  we  need  the  quick-growing  varieties,  to  mature 
before  the  cold  weather  comes.  If  the  Premium  Flat  Dutch  is 
used,  it  should  be  set  not  later  than  July  1.  In  fact,  June 
26  would  be  preferable  in  this  latitude.  This  variety  should  be 
set  at  least  thirty  inches  apart  each  way. 

It  may  be  asked,  Why  not  set  the  entire  crop  early  in  the  sea- 
son, or  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  warm  and  settled?  One 
reason  is  that  if  plants  are  set  too  early  the  heads  become  ripe 
and  burst,  and  are  very  soon  worthless.  The  other  reason  is 
that  we  wish  to  double-crop  our  ground  as  far  as  possible.  For 
instance,  our  strawberries  are  generally  gone  by  the  10th  of 
July,  and  we  can  get  a  good  crop  of  cabbage  on  the  ground  by 
setting  a  quick-growing  sort,  and  then  taking  good  care  of  it. 
For  all  our  cabbage  except  what  we  call  first-  and  second- earlies, 
we  sow  the  seed  in  the  open  ground  in  the  garden,  sowing  some 
about  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  fit  to  work,  and  then  continuing  to 
sow  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days  until  from  the  1st  to  the 
5th  of  June,  when  we  sow  the  seed  for  our  last  setting  in  July. 

Very  few  growers  now  attempt  to  grow  their  own  seed.  Seed- 
growing  has  become  a  business  by  itself,  and  the  gardener  can 
purchase  good  seed  if  ho  deals  directly  with  reliable  seedsmen.  To 
depend  upon  the  papers  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  windows  of  the 


Cabbage    Culture  333 

grocers  would  be  the  height  of  folly.  The  safest  way,  if  possible, 
is  to  deal  direct  with  the  growers,  and  then,  if  there  is  failure,  we 
know  where  the  blame  belongs. 

For  early  cabbage,  two  feet  apart  each  way  is  sufficient,  For 
marking  off  the  ground,  we  use  a  marker  similar  in  form  to  a 
common  hand  hay  rake,  the  head  being  of  some  light  kind  of  dry 
timber,  usually  a  2  x  4 
pine  scantling  12  feet 
long,  with  holes  bored 
at  different  distances 
apart  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  teeth  will 
slope  a  little  back  in- 
stead  of  forward,  as 
with  the  hay  rake. 
With  this  a  man  can 
mark  two  acres  in  a 
day,  and  do  it  well. 
For  early  cabbages,  we 
start  our  seeds  in  a 
hotbed  about  five  or  six  weeks  before  they  will  be  needed  for  set- 
ting in  the  open  ground.  Some  persons  advocate  sowing  them 
very  early,  and  then  transplanting  them  into  a  mild  hotbed  or 
coldframe,  four  or  five  inches  apart  each  way,  so  as  to  have  them 
larger  and  more  stocky  than  is  possible  in  the  original  hotbed, 
before  putting  them  in  the  open  ground.  I  have  tried  it  repeat- 
edly and  had  plants  large  and  beautiful  in  appearance,  but  when 
the  crop  was  grown  I  have  never  once  had  it  as  good  as  when  the 
plants  were  taken  direct  from  the  hotbed  to  the  open  ground.  I 
can  give  no  reason  for  this  and  will  not  attempt  any.  The  plants 
from  the  coldframe  may  make  heads  a  few  days  earlier,  but  the 
crop  has  in  every  case  been  an  indifferent  one,  and  we  abandoned 
the  plan  years  ago  as  no  longer  worthy  of  trial. 

When  the  ground  is  prepared  and  marked,  let  a  man  go  ahead 
with  a  potato  hook  and  loosen  the  ground  where  the  plants  are  to 
be  set,  if  it  is  hard.  Then  let  a  boy  follow  with  a  basket  of  plants 
and  drop  one  at  each  crossing  of  the  marks.  The  boy  must  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  setters,  but  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  ahead  of 
them,  as  a  few  minutes  of  dry  and  hot  sunshine  will  seriously 


334         The   Principles  of  Vegetable -Gardening 

damage  the  plants.  The  setters  go  upon  their  knees  between  the 
rows,  setting  two  rows  as  they  go.  They  pick  up  the  plant  with 
the  left  hand,  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  right  open  the  ground 
and  set  the  plant,  press  the  earth  back,  and  then  with  the  closed 
hands  press  the  earth  firmly  about  the  newly  set  plant.  This  is  all 
done  very  quickly.  Some  of  my  men  will  set  6,000  or  8,000  plants 
per  day,  and  do  it  well.  After  setting,  unless  the  ground  is  quite 
damp  and  the  weather  wet,  it  is  best  to  put  at  least  half  a  pint  of 
water  upon  each  plant.  I  know  of  no  plant  that  will  bear  trans- 
planting, even  in  very  dry,  hot  weather,  better  than  the  cabbage, 
provided  it  is  well  watered.  In  the  summer  we  often  put  one  quart 
of  water  on  the  plant  instead  of  half  a  pint,  and  even  then  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  repeat  the  operation  within  three  or  four 
days.  You  may  think  all  this  pains  in  setting  and  watering  quite 
too  much  trouble,  but  the  doing  of  the  work  well  or  ill,  and  doing 
it  at  the  right  time,  make  the  difference  between  a  paying  crop 
and  a  partial,  or  perhaps  total,  failure. 

Tilling. — The  plants  will  need  cultivating  very  often  if  they 
are  to  grow  rapidly.  It  is  well  to  go  through  them  the  first  time 
with  a  hand  cultivator,  as  the  plants  are  so  small  that  a  horse 
cultivator  will  cover  some  and  damage  others.  But  when  the 
plants  are  well  started,  we  like  the  horse  and  the  Planet  Jr.  cul- 
tivator. As  the  plants  are  but  two  feet  apart,  and  the  cultivator 
needs  careful  handling,  we  let  a  boy  lead  the  horse.  Nearly  all 
the  work  is  done  with  the  horse  and  cultivator,  except  a  very 
little  near  the  plants.  Although  they  are  very  strong  and  rapid 
growers,  but  few  plants  are  more  sensitive  to  neglect  than  the 
cabbage,  or  more  favorably  affected  by  extra  good  care.  We 
had  a  good  illustration  of  this  last  summer.  The  weather  was 
very  dry,  and  we  were  doing  our  best  to  protect  them  against 
the  drought  by  extra  cultivation.  They  had  become  so  large  that 
we  were,  as  we  well  knew,  going  through  them  for  the  last  time. 
The  ground  was  apparently  as  dry  as  hot  ashes  and  almost  as 
mellow  to  walk  upon,  Few  persons  would  have  thought  that  any 
further  cultivation  would  have  been  of  any  use,  so  apparently 
perfect  was  the  condition,  and  one  would  hardly  have  been  able 
to  find  weeds  enough  to  fill  his  pockets  from  the  three  or  four 
acres.  Still  I  thought  going  through  them  again  might  possibly 
aid  them  in  their  struggle  with  the  drought.  But  a  shower  came 


Cabbage    Culture  335 

in  the  afternoon  and  drove  the  cultivator  out,  leaving  about 
three-fourths  of  an  acre  undone.  In  the  morning  on  going  to 
the  garden,  I  found  my  teamster  at  work  elsewhere,  and  on  ask- 
ing him  why  he  had  not  finished  cultivating  the  cabbage,  he 
said  he  had  tried  to  do  it,  but  found  they  had  grown  so  much 
in  the  night  that  he  thought  his  work  there  would  do  more 
harm  than  good,  and  after  myself  examining  them  I  fully  agreed 
with  him,  and  they  received  no  further  cultivation.  Now  for 
the  result  :  when  we  came  to  harvest  the  crop,  we  found  that  the 
portion  left  uncultivated  was  not  nearly  as  good  as  the  balance 
of  the  piece,  although  the  variety  was  the  same,  the  land,  the 
manure,  and  cultivation  were  the  same  except  the  last  cultivation. 
My  son  and  myself  estimated  that  the  cash  value  of  that  three- 
fourths  of  an  acre  was  at  least  fifty  dollars  less  for  lack  of  that 
last  few  hours'  work.  One  was  simply  a  good  crop,  while  the 
other  was  a  very  large  one. 

Varieties.— Like  other  garden  vegetables,  the  list  of  new  vari- 
ties  enlarges  rapidly.  It  is  well  to  test  some  of  the  more  prom- 
ising novelties,  but  do  it  in  a  small  way  at  first,  and  if  on  trial 
they  prove  better  than  those  you  now  have,  adopt  them.  Differ- 
ent varieties  thrive  best  in  different  sections  of  country.  The 
Bergen  Drumhead  is  one  of  the  finest  varieties  in  the  region  of 
New  York  city,  but  has  never  done  equally  well  with  me,  while 
the  Newark  Flat  Dutch,  its  near  neighbor,  is  one  of  the  best  and 
most  profitable  varieties  I  have  ever  cultivated.  In  fact,  if  I 
could  have  but  one  variety,  and  was  allowed  to  choose,  I  believe 
I  should  take  this  in  preference  to  any  other  that  I  have  ever 
tried.  The  Chicago  Market  is  very  good  and  is  valuable  in  the 
gardens  near  that  city,  but  with  me  not  equal  to  others.  Try 
the  standard  varieties  first,  experiment  carefully,  and  you  will 
soon  find  what  you  can  safely  rely  on  for  a  crop,  if  you  do  your 
work  thoroughly  and  well. 

For  first  early,  the  Charleston  Wakefield  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  list.  If  it  is  planted  out  as  early  as  the  season  will  allow  with 
us,  and  well  cared  for,  we  usually  expect  to  begin  to  market  the 
crop  in  June.  The  Newark  Flat  Dutch  and  Henderson  Early  Sum- 
mer are  among  the  best  for  second-early,  being  only  about  two 
weeks  later  than  the  Wakefield,  and  as  they  are  larger  are  chosen 
in  preference  to  the  other.  Hence  we  only  set  enough  of  the 


336         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Wakefield  to  last  until  the  others  are  grown.  Early  Spring  is  only 
a  few  days  behind  the  Wakefield.  The  great  drawback  with  us  in 
growing  early  cabbage  is  what  we  call  the  cabbage  maggot.  It  is 
the  product  of  a  fly  very  similar  to  a  small  house  fly.  Paper  pads 
(p.  345)  are  good  preventives  of  attack.  As  a  main-season  variety 
the  Premium  Flat  Dutch  has  been  invaluable.  It  grows  an  immense 
mass  of  leaves,  and  if  grown  for  feed  would  have  extra  value  on  that 
account.  But  it  is  also  an  excellent  variety  for  the  table.  The 
heads  are  nearly  round,  very  solid,  of  excellent  quality,  and  also 
very  good  keepers.  Then  in  case  of  a  few  cold  and  freezing  days 
or  nights  before  cabbages  are  gathered,  this  will  not  be  damaged 
as  much  as  the  quick- growing  varieties.  This  variety  is  now  dis- 
placed by  Autumn  King,  Succession,  and  others. 

Marketing  and  Storing. — Our  cabbage  is  mostly  shipped  away 
from  our  city,  the  best  market  being  outside.  During  the  summer 
and  until  late  in  the  fall  it  is  cut  and  packed  in  crates  that  will 
hold  from  50  to  100  each.  Being  sold  by  the  head,  we  have  found 
that  it  gives  better  satisfaction  to  our  customers  to  put  in  the 
crates  neither  the  very  largest  nor  the  smallest  heads,  but  to  have 
them  of  good,  fair  size  and  to  run  as  evenly  as  possible,  leaving 
the  very  large  ones  and  the  small  ones  to  be  worked  into  kraut.  I 
rarely  throw  them  on  the  market,  but  supply  retail  grocers  and 
others  who  sell  direct  to  the  consumers.  It  is  always  our  object 
to  keep  just  as  near  the  consumer  as  possible.  Late  in  the  fall  we 
often  sell  in  bulk  to  those  who  are  laying  in  a  stock  for  winter. 
We  always  prefer  to  sell  our  entire  crop  in  the  fall  in  preference 
to  keeping  it  through  the  winter.  It  is  bulky  to  handle,  requires 
a  good  deal  of  room  and  more  or  less  care,  and  there  is  sure  to  be 
more  or  less  loss  and  waste.  We  have  sometimes  kept  a  few.  hun- 
dred in  the  following  manner  : 

Dig  a  trench  about  four  feet  wide  and  at  least  one  foot  deep. 
Pull  up  the  cabbage  without  shaking  the  dirt  from  the  roots  and 
retaining  all  the  leaves.  Place  the  heads  in  the  trench  with  the 
roots  up,  close  together,  and  wrap  the  leaves  closely  around  them. 
Throw  a  few  inches  of  straw  over  them  and  then  cover  with  earth,-— 
not  more  than  three  or  four  inches  at  first.  Two  dangers  must  be 
guarded  against:  If  you  get  them  too  warm  they  will  surely 
rot;  or  if  you  let  them  freeze  too  hard  they  will  just  as  surely  be 
spoiled  when  the  frost  comes  out  in  the  spring.  After  the  weather 


338         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

becomes  cold,  freezing  somewhat,  put  on  more  earth.  I  think  a 
foot  will  do  no  harm.  I  have  had  good  success  with  cabbage  kept 
in  this  manner,  but  have  again  lost  the  entire  lot  by  too  hard  freez- 
ing. Hence,  we  prefer,  if  possible,  to  sell  the  entire  crop  in  the 
fall,  even  if  we  are  obliged  to  sell  at  a  low  rate.  Cabbage  is  now 
stored  on  shelves  in  a  cool  dry  building. 

Costs  and  Profits. — Following  were  figures  for  the  growing  of 
a  market-garden  crop  of  cabbages  10  years  ago.  We  need  first- 
class  land,  and  will  assume  it  to  be  worth  $200  per  acre: 

Interest  and  taxes  per  year $15  00 

Forty  loads  of   manure  at   $1   per  load  .  40  00 

Plowing  and  fitting  the  ground    ....  3  00 

10,000  plants  at  $4  per  thousand       .     .     .  40  00 

Setting  and  watering 5  00 

After-cultivation 10  00 

Harvesting  and  marketing        50  00 

Total $163  00 

If  we  get  8,000  heads  and  sell  them  at  $3.50 

per  hundred $280  00 

It  will  give  a  net  profit  of $117  00 

I  have  placed  the  cost  of  growing  at  a  fair  price  (I  believe 
more  than  it  will  cost  me),  and  a  crop  of  8,000  from  a  setting 
of  10,000  is  only  moderate.  At  present  these  figures  cannot  be 
reached.  Sometimes  the  crop  is  sold  at  a  loss. 


One  ounce  of  cabbage  seed  contains  over  8,000  seeds,  but 
not  more  than  one-third  or  one-half  of  these  seeds  may  be  ex- 
pected to  make  good  plants.  Early  varieties  are  set  18x24 
inches,  or  24x24  inches  (about  10,000  plants  to  the  acre);  late 
varieties  2x3  feet  (about  7,000  plants).  Four  to  six  ounces  of 
seed  is  usually  required  for  an  acre. 

For  Chinese  Cabbage  or  Pe-Tsai,  see  the  next  chapter. 


Kale  339 

KALE  OR  BORECOLE 

As  compared  with  cabbage,  kale  requires  less  exacting 
care,  is  hardier,  and  the  seed  is  usually  sown  where  the 
plants  are  to  mature.  Kale  is  groivn  for  its  large 
leaves.  Kale  may  be  likened  to  a  cabbage  plant  that 
produces  no  heads.  In  fact,  it  is  a  form  of  the  cabbage 
species  that  is  very  near  the  aboriginal  type.  The 
plants  are  extremely  hardy  and  are  therefore  grown 
mostly  for  fall  or  spring  use.  Greens  from  kale  are 
prized  in  the  market  only  very  late  or  early  in  the 
season  when  many  other  kinds  cannot  be  had  in  quantity. 
In  the  North,  kale  is  ordinarily  sown  in  the  spring,  the 
seeds  being  placed  where  the  plants  are  to  stand.  The 
rows  may  be  far  enough  apart  to  allow  of  horse  cultiva- 
tion, and  the  plants  may  eventually  stand,  after  the 
thinning  process,  from  ten  to  twenty  inches  apart, 
allowing  each  plant  an  opportunity  to  develop  to  its 
best.  The  plants  are  not  used  until  late  fall  or  even 
winter.  Often  they  are  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  all 
winter  and  are  not  injured  by  freezing,  not  even  in  the 
northern  states.  The  older  leaves  and  leaf -stalks  are 
usually  improved  by  being  frozen.  The  tenderest  leaves 
are  picked  from  the  plants  at  intervals,  or  the  whole 
plant  may  be  harvested  at  once.  For  early  spring  use 
the  seed  ordinarily  is  sown  in  late  summer  or  early  fall 
in  the  South  and  middle  South,  and  the  plants  stand  out 
of  doors  during  the  whole  winter  and  are  ready  for  use 
very  early  in  the  spring.  In  the  northernmost  states, 
however,  these  young  plants  are  likely  to  perish  unless 
protected  under  frames;  therefore  fall -sown  kale  is  rela- 


340         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

tively  little  known  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  country.  It 
is  grown  on  a  very  extensive  scale  about  Norfolk,  Vir- 
ginia, and  is  shipped  to  the  northern  markets  from  New 
Year's  until  the  opening  of  spring. 

In  the  southern  states  a  form  of  kale  known  as  col- 
lards  is  much  grown,  particularly  in  those  regions  which 
are  so  warm  that  good  cabbages  cannot  be  raised.  The 
plants  are  grown  as  cabbage  plants  are,  the  seed  being 
sown  very  early  in  the  spring,  usually  in  a  seed-bed 
under  protection,  in  order  that  the  plants  may  get  a 
good  growth  before  hot  weather  sets  in.  The  leaves  are 
ready  for  eating  in  the  fall.  Sometimes  young  cabbage 
plants  are  raised  for  greens  and  are  known  as  collards. 


BRUSSELS   SPROUTS 

The  culture  demanded  by  Brussels  sprouts  is  essen- 
tially that  required  by  kale,  except  that  the  plants  are  al- 
ways grown  as  a  fall  crop  and  they  are  usually  started 
in  seed-beds.  The  plant  is  grown  for  the  small  heads 
along  the  main  stalk. 

Brussels  sprouts  is  closely  allied  to  kale,  but  along 
the  straight,  strong  stem  little  buds  or  miniature  cab- 
bages are  borne,  and  these  are  the  edible  parts.  A  good 
"sprout,"  as  one  of  the  buds  is  called,  averages  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter.  When  the  sprouts  are 
small  and  tender,  they  constitute  one  of  the  best  arid 
most  delicately  flavored  vegetables  of  the  cabbage  tribe. 

The  treatment  for  Brussels  sprouts  is  essentially  that 
for  cabbage.  In  the  North  the  seeds  ordinarily  'are 
sown  rather  late  in  order  that  the  plants  may  not  mature 


Brussels    Sprouts — Cauliflower  341 

too  early,  for  the  sprouts  are  most  prized  in  late  fall 
and  winter.  A  large  part  of  the  growth  of  the  plant  is 
made  in  the  cool  weather  of  fall.  If  seeds  are  sown  in 
Jane,  the  plants  may  be  set  in  the  field  after  the  manner 
of  cabbages  in  late  July  or  August.  In  the  middle 
states  the  plants  may  be  left  out  of  doors  during  the 
winter  as  the  light  freezing  does  not  injure  the  sprouts. 
In  the  northernmost  states,  however,  plants  are  usually 
dug  late  in  the  fall  and  planted  out  in  pits,  something 
after  the  method  described  for  celery  and  leeks,  on  page 
232.  A  good  crop  of  Brussels  sprouts  is  dependent  very 
largely  on  the  strain  of  seed,  as  the  plants  tend  to  run 
down  when  careful  selection  in  seed -raising  is  not  prac- 
ticed. A  strong  plant  of  the  ordinary  varieties  of  Brus- 
sels sprouts  makes  a  stalk  from  two  to  three  feet  high, 
producing  sprouts  from  nea,r  the  base  to  the  large 
canopy  of  leaves  at  the  top.  There  are  dwarf  varieties, 
however,  which  grow  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches 
high  and  which  are  in  favor  in  short-season  climates. 

CAULIFLOWER 

From  cabbage,  the  culture  of  cauliflower  differs 
chiefly  as  follows  :  The  plant  is  more  particular  as  to 
climate,  requiring  a  relatively  cool,  moist  season;  it 
demands  a  constant  supply  of  soil -moisture;  care  must 
be  exercised  that  the  heads  do  not  sunburn;  it  is  vitally 
important  that  the  very  best  strain  of  seed  is  used.  The 
plant  is  grown  for  its  white  tender  heads  formed  of  the 
shortened  and  thickened  flower-parts. 

Cauliflower  is  a  difficult  plant  to  grow  to  perfection 


342         The  Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

in  the  hotter  and  dryer  parts  of  the  country.  Its  re- 
quirements are  similar  to  those  of  the  cabbage  except 
that  it  is  injured  by  hot  suns  and  dry  weather,  and  it 
therefore  needs  a  cool  and  moist  atmosphere.  Along 
the  seaboard  of  the  northeastern  states,  near  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  in  the  Pug-et  Sound  region,  cauliflower  is 
grown  with  success,  as  it  is,  also,  in  special  locations  in 
many  parts  of  the  country.  Wherever  irrigation  can  be 
practiced,  it  may  also  be  grown  successfully.  In  the 
American  climate  the  effort  is  usually  made  to  secure 
the  crop  early  or  late  and  thereby  to  avoid  growing  it  in 
the  heat  of  midsummer.  When  thus  grown,  its  range  of 
adaptability  is'much  extended.  Under  this  system,  the 
early  crop  is  usually  off  in  June  or  July.  This  crop  is 
secured  by  growing  the  early  varieties,  like  the  Snow- 
ball and  Paris,  and  by  starting  the  plants  under  glass. 
The  late  crop  is  matured  late  in  the  fall  from  seeds 
that  are  sown  in  summer  in  seed-beds.  For  this  crop 
some  of  the  later  and  larger -growing  varieties  may  be 
used.  There  is  a  family  of  long-season  and  late-matur- 
ing cauliflowers,  relatively  little  grown  in  this  country, 
which  is  known  under  the  general  name  of  broccoli. 

In  order  that  the  heads  of  cauliflower  may  be  white 
and  tender,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  not  sun- 
burned. If  the  heads  mature  in  midsummer,  it  is  well 
to  tie  the  leaves  together  over  the  head  or  to  break  a 
few  of  the  leaves  over  it  in  order  to  shade  it. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  conserve  the  moisture 
by  deep  preparation  of  the  land  in  the  first  place  and 
by  frequent  surface  tillage  thereafter.  Low  but  well- 
drained  bottom-lands  are  usually  chosen  in  order  that 


Kohlrabi  343 

the  plants  may  have  a  constant  supply  of  moisture.  On 
Long  Island,  however,  where  the  cauliflower  is  very 
largely  grown,  this  precaution  is  unnecessary,  since  the 
atmosphere  is  moist  from  proximity  to  the  ocean  and 
the  water-table  is  not  deep. 

Probably  there  is  no  other  vegetable  which  so  quickly 
runs  down  from  poor  seed  as  the  cauliflower.  It  is, 
therefore,  exceedingly  important  that  the  very  best  strain 
of  seed  be  secured  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  attained. 
The  best  cauliflower  seed  is  expensive,  running  as  high 
as  three  to  five  dollars  per  ounce  ;  but  the  cheap  seed 
gives  a  smaller  percentage  of  heading  plants  and  the  heads 
are  usually  irregular  and  broken.  The  cauliflower  has  a 
tendency  to  "button  "  or  to  throw  up  irregular  growths 
from  the  head.  This  is  due  to  poor  seed,  dry  soil  and 
too  great  heat,  and  also  to  allowing  the  plants  to  become 
checked  and  then  starting  them  into  new  growth  by  re- 
newed tillage.  Keep  the  plants  in  a  uniform  condition 
of  thrift.  The  cauliflower  seed  of  the  market  is  grown 
iu  the  Old  World,  the  best  of  it  coming  from  Denmark; 
but  just  now  the  Puget  Sound  country  is  developing  as  a 
region  for  the  growing  of  cauliflower  seed. 

KOHLRABI 

The  treatment  required  by  kohlrabi  is  that  demanded 
by  flat  turnips.  The  plant  is  grown  for  the  tuberous  stem. 

Kohlrabi  produces  a  turnip-like  tuber  just  above  the 
ground.  It  is  grown  mostly  as  a  stock  food  and  is 
relatively  little  known  in  this  country  outside  of  Canada. 
However,  the  plant  is  a  very  excellent  garden  vegetable 


344         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

if  used  before  the  tubers  become  large  and  stringy. 
The  tubers  should  be  used  when  they  are  from  two  to 
three  inches  in  diameter;  it  is  essential  that  they  should 
have  grown  quickly  and  continuously,  otherwise  they  are 
tough  and  bitter.  Successive  sowings 
may  be  made  and  the  plants  should  be 
thinned  to  six  to  ten  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  White  Vienna  is  the  leading  garden 
variety.  Fig.  102. 

Seed  required  per  acre  and  distances  apart  for 
Brussels  sprouts  and  cauliflower  are  essentially  as 
for  cabbage  ;  kale  is  usually  allowed  to  stand 

somewhat  closer  in  the  rows.     For  kohlrabi,   esti- 
Fig.  102.    Kohlrabi. 

mate  as  for  turnips. 

In  1889  (Annals  Hort.)  American  seedsmen  offered  110  varie- 
ties of  cabbage,   29  of  kale,  7  of  Brussels  sprouts,   53  of    cauli- 
flower, 7  of  kohlrabi.     Goff  classifies  cabbages  as  follows  (5th  An- 
nual Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.  for  1886,  p.  185): 
A.  Foliage  smooth. 

B.  Head  flattened. 
BB.  Head  round. 

c.  Foliage  green, 
cc.  Foliage  red  or  purple. 
BBB.  Head  egg-shaped. 
BBBB.  Head  elliptical. 
BBBBB.  Head  conical. 

c.  Foliage  green, 
cc.  Foliage  red. 
AA.  Foliage  blistered  (Savoys). 

B.  Head  round. 
BB.  Head  elliptical. 
BBB.  Head  conical. 

The  cole  plants  (known  to  the  French  under  the  generic  name 
of  chou}  are  probably  derivatives  of  one  European  sea-coast  species, 
Brassica  oleracea.  It  belongs  to  the  Cruciferas  or  mustard  family. 
The  plant  is  perennial  and  now  grows  on  the  cliffs  of  southern  Eng- 


Notes   on    Cole    Plants  345 

land  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  cultivated  offspring  are  mostly 
biennial.  The  wild  cabbage  is  very  like  a  tall  kale.  See  pictures 
in  Cyclopedia  Amer.  Hort.  under  Cabbage.  The  types  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  follows : 

Brassica  oleracea,  wild  or  original  form. 
Var.  acephala.     Kale. 
Var.  gemmifera.    Brussels  sprouts. 
Var.  capitata.     Cabbage. 
Var.  botrytis.     Cauliflower. 
Var.  caulo-rapa.     Kohlrabi. 

In  some  of  its  forms  cabbage  has  been  cultivated  from  the 
earliest  times.  For  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  June, 
1887,  pp.  520-523  for  cabbage;  September,  1888,  pp.  805-808  for 
kale;  May,  1887,  pp.  440-442  for  Brussels  sprouts;  August,  1887, 
pp.  701-703  for  cauliflower. 

On  insects  and  diseases  the  following  publications  maybe  con- 
sulted : 

Root  maggot,  Cornell  Bull.  78.  Very  complete.  Illustr. 
The  really  efficient  means  of  circumventing  or  destroying 
the  cabbage  maggot,  aside  from  rotation,  are  very  few. 
See  Slingerland,  Cornell  Bull.  78,  who  recommends  tarred 
paper  cards  placed  snugly  about  the  plants ;  rubbing  eggs 
from  base  of  the  young  plant;  injecting  crude  carbolic 
acid  emulsion,  or  bisulfide  of  carbon  into  the  ground  about 
the  plants.  The  injections  are  best  made  with  a  specially 
constructed  syringe. 

Cutworms,  Cornell  Bull.  104. 

Worm,  or  Butterfly,  N.  Y.  Bull.  83,  p.  657;  ill.  N.  Y.  Bull. 
144.  Capture.  Persistent  use  of  Paris  green  on  first  crop. 
Resin-lime  mixture:  Pulv.  resin,  5  Ibs. ;  concentrated  lye,  1 
Ib. ;  fish  oil  or  any  cheap  animal  oil,  except  tallow,  1  pt. ; 
water,  5  gals. 

Looper.     Same  as  for  worm. 

Aphis,  N.  Y.  Bull.  83,  p.  673.  Fla.  Bull.  34,  p.  270.  Bisulfide 
of  carbon ;  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  ten  parts  water ; 
on  lower  and  upper  sides  of  leaves  if  possible  when  small. 
Tobacco ;  pyrethrum ;  Persian  insect  powder. 


346         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug,  N.  Y.  Bull.  83,  p.  683.    N.  J.  Bull.  121. 

Fla.  Bull.  34,  p.  268.      N.  Y. :   Hand-picking.      Should 

not  get  foothold.     N.  J.:  Clean  culture  and  cleanliness 

to  deprive  of  winter  shelter. 
Club  root,  N.  J.  Bull.  98.     N.  Y.  Rept.,  1895,  p.  525.      N.  J. 

Bull.  108,  p.  17.     N.  J. :  Air-slaked  stone  lime,  75  bus.  to 

acre.     Rotation:  see  p.  200  of  this  book. 

Special  book  literature:  Gregory,  "Cabbages;"  Pedersen,  et 
al.,  "How  to  Grow  Cabbages  and  Cauliflower  most  Profitably;"  Lup- 
ton,  "Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  for  profit;"  Crozier,  "The  Cauli- 
flower" ("How  to  Cook  Cauliflower"  is  a  reprint  of  one  chapter  in 
this  book);  Brill,  "Cauliflowers  and  How  to  Grow  Them." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

POT-HERB    CROPS 

Spinach,  Pe-tsai, 

Chard  or  leaf-beet,  Dandelion, 

Orach,  Purslane. 
Mustard, 

Pot-herb  crops,  or  "greens,"  are  grown  for  their 
leaves:  therefore  they  must  make  quick  growth  in  order 
to  be  crisp  and  tender;  the  ground  must  have  good  sur- 
face tilth  and  much  available  plant- food;  the  application 
of  soluble  nitrogenous  substances  is  usually  important, 
particularly  when  the  growth  is  nearing  completion.  Most 
pot-herb  crops  demand  a  cool  season;  and  nearly  all  of 
them  are  partial  -  season  crops,  and  are  therefore  treated 
as  succession-  or  companion -crops. 

SPINACH 

Spinach  is  essentially  a  spring  and  fall  crop.  It  de- 
lights in  cool,  moist  weather.  It  is  grown  mostly  in 
drills.  It  is  usually  a  succession  -  crop . 

Spinach  or  spinage  is  the  standard  plant  for  spring 
and  fall  greens.  For  home  use  it  may  be  had  during 
the  summer  by  making  successional  sowings  in  rather 
cool  and  moist  ground;  but  as  a  commercial  crop,  it  is 
not  grown  in  warm  weather.  Formerly  spinach  was 

(347) 


348         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

brought  to  early  maturity  in  the  North  under  glass  on  a 
rather  large  scale,  but  of  late  years  it  is  grown  in  such 
quantities  about  Norfolk  and  other  parts  of  the  South 
that  it  is  seldom  grown  in  frames  in  the  North  except 
for  home  use. 

The  early  spring  spinach  is  grown  from  seeds  that 
are  sown  in  the  field  in  September.  The  land  should  be 
rich;  also  well  drained,  that  the  plants  may  not  "heave" 
by  frost.  It  is  customary  to  plow  the  land  into  low 
ridges  or  beds  6-9  feet  wide,  in  order  to  secure  perfect 
surface  drainage.  Lengthwise  these  beds  the  spinach  is 
sown  in  rows  12-18  inches  apart,  the  distance  depending 
on  the  means  that  are  employed  for  tillage.  The  plants 
should  become  thoroughly  established  before  winter, 
having  made  a  spread  of  leaves  of  three  or  four  inches 
at  least.  The  crop  is  usually  left  uncovered  in  the 
North,  even  as  far  north  as  *New  York  state;  although 
if  material  is  at  hand,  it  may  be  covered  lightly  with 
straw  or  litter  to  prevent  heaving  and  thawing.  On  the 
first  opening  of  spring  the  spinach  resumes  growth.  In 
fact,  in  mild  seasons  it  may  grow  throughout  most  of 
the  winter.  It  should  be  ready  for  use  in  April  and 
May,  and  be  off  the  ground  early  in  June,  even  in  the 
northern  states,  leaving  the  land  for  other  crops.  In  the 
South  it  is  marketed  from  late  November  to  March  and 
early  April.  Since  spinach  is  prized  for  its  crisp,  ten- 
der leaves,  it  is  a  crop  that  profits  by  an  application 
of  soluble  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  It  is  customary,  in 
some  parts  of  the  country,  to  sprinkle  the  ground  early 
in  the  spring  with  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  soda  or 
sulfate  of  ammonia,  using  from  50-75  pounds  of  the 


Spinach  349 

fertilizer  per  acre  at  each  of  two  or  three  successive 
applications.  These  applications  may  be  made  from  ten 
days  to  two  weeks  apart.  The  applications  are  often 
applied  by  means  of  a  street  sprinkler  or  similar  ar- 
rangement. Sometimes  the  beds  are  top-dressed  with 
manure  in  the  fall,  and  the  teachings  from  the  manure 
will  then  start  the  plants  quickly  in  the  spring.  Hen- 
manure  is  sometimes  used. 

There   is   always    more   or   less   loss  of   fall -grown 
plants  in  the  northern  states.     For  home  use,  and  some- 


Fig.  103.     Spinach  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

times  for  market,  plants  are  started  in  the  spring  in  a 
warm  position,  the  seed  usually  being  sown  where  the 
plants  are  to  remain.  It  is  more  easy  to  secure  a  good 
stand  by  this  spring  sowing,  but  the  plants  do  not  ma- 
ture so  early.  Spinach  is  sometimes  started  under  glass 
and  transplanted  to  the  open ;  and  it  is  sometimes  grown 
to  edible  maturity  under  frames.  Sometimes  beds  of 
fall -grown  spinach  are  covered  with  sash  in  February 
or  March  in  order  to  hasten  the  plants. 

The  New  Zealand  spinach,  which  is  a  distinct  spe- 
cies from   the    above,   is    sometimes   used   for   summer 


350         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

greens,  although  it  has  never  gained  much  popularity, 
one  reason  being  that  greens  are  not  in  great  demand  in 
hot  weather. 

Drills  for  spinach  are  usually  12-18  in.  apart.  In  the  drills 
the  plants  may  stand  4-6  in.  apart.  For  an  acre,  10-12  Ibs.  of 
seed  is  used;  1  oz.  sows  about  150  ft.  of  drill. 

Spinach,  Spinacia  oleracea,  is  one  of  the  Chenopodiacece,  or  pig- 
weed family,  allied  to  beet.  It  is  probably  native  to  southwestern 
Asia,  and  appears  to  have  come  into  cultivation  within  the  Chris- 
tian era.  The  plant  is  annual,  sending  up  its  flower-stalk  in  sum- 
mer if  sown  in  early  spring.  There  are  two  races,  the  prickly- 
seeded  and  round-seeded  (the  "seeds"  are  really  fruits'*,  and  these 
are  regarded  as  distinct  species  by  some  writers.  The  prickly- 
seeded  is  hardiest  and  is  commonly  used  for  fall  sowing.  Other 
standard  kinds  are  Viroflay,  Bloomsdale,  Round-Leaved.  Nineteen 
varieties  were  in  the  American  trade  in  1889.  Goff  (6th  Rep.  N.  Y. 
State  Exp.  Sta.,  pp.  225-230)  reduces  the  varieties  to  10,  divid- 
ing them  into  "seeds  not  prickly"  {9  vars.)  and  "seeds  prickly." 
For  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  August,  1890,  pp.  724- 
726. 

For  spinach  troubles,  see : 

Leaf  miner,  N.  Y.  Bull.  99;  R.  I.  Bull.  41.  N.  Y.:  Clean 
cultivation  to  destroy  all  lamb's  quarters;  late  fall  or  early 
spring  plowing  of  fields. 

Various  fungous  diseases,  desc.  and  ill.  in  N.  Y.  Bull.  No.  70. 
Mildew,  Anthracnose,  Leaf  Blight,  White  Smut.  Burn 
all  affected  parts.  Rotation.  Treat  soil  with  mixture  of 
flowers  of  sulfur  and  air-slaked  lime. 

New  Zealand  Spinach  is  not  a  spinach,  but  a  member  of  tho 
Fig  Marigold  family  (Mesembryantliemacece) .  It  is  Tetragonia  ex- 
pansa  of  the  botanists.  It  is  annual.  It  endures  hot  weather  and 
therefore  may  be  substituted  for  spinach  in  summer.  Sow  at  in- 
tervals, as  for  spinach.  "This  plant  was  first  found  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  in  1770,  at  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound,  New  Zealand,  and  its 
merits  discovered  to  the  sailors  of  Captain  Cook's  expedition  round 
the  world.  It  reached  Kew  Gardens  in  1772." — Sturtevant,  Amer. 
Nat.,  Jan.,  1890,  p.  32. 


Chard,    Orach,   Mustard  351 

OTHER  GREENS 

Many  kinds  of  plants  aside  from  spinach  are  used 
as  greens  or  pot-herbs.  Some  of  the  common  weeds 
are  much  prized  for  this  purpose  in  the  rural  districts, 
particularly  the  common  white  pigweed  or  lamb's 
quarter,  pusley  or  purslane,  dandelion  and  dock.  The 
following  are  garden  plants. 

Ohard,  or  leaf -beet,  is  one  of  the  best  of  pot-herb 
plants.  It  ordinarily  requires  nearly  a  full  season  in 
which  to  mature,  although  it  will  give  a  supply  of  edible 
foliage  from  early  summer  until  fall.  The  chard  has 
very  broad  and  thick  leaf-blades  and  midribs,  which 
are  usually  white  or  tinted  rather  than  green.  Some- 
times these  are  blanched  by  tying  up  the  bunch  of 
foliage.  Seeds  are  sown  early  in  the  spring  as  ordinary 
beet  seeds  are,  and  the  plants  are  thinned  as  used  until 
finally  they  stand  6-12  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Small 
plants  of  the  common  beet,  as  explained  on  page  279, 
are  often  used  for  greens. 

Orach  is  allied  to  the  amaranths,  or  pigweeds.  It  is 
grown  for  the  large  succulent  root-leaves.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  cool -season  plant,  the  seed  being  sown  early  in 
the  spring  and  the  foliage  used  before  midsummer.  By 
midsummer,  or  later,  the  plant  sends  up  a  strong  flower- 
stalk  four  or  five  feet  high,  and  thereafter  it  is  of  no  use 
as  a  pot-herb  plant. 

Mustard  is  much  used  for  greens  in  home  gardens, 
and  it  is  also  grown  to  a  large  extent  in  parts  of  the 
South,  where  the  climate  is  too  hot  for  many  other  pot- 
herb crops.  Some  of  the  improved  varieties  of  curled- 


352          The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

leaved  mustard  are  amongst  the  best  of  all  pot-herb 
plants.  In  midsummer  the  plants  run  to  seed.  The 
seeds  are  sown  very  early  in  spring,  and  the  tender 
bunch  of  foliage  is  ready  for  use  in  May  or  June.  In 
fact,  even  in  the  northern  states,  on  sandy  warm  soil 
the  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  and  the  plants  will 
be  ready  for  use  in  early  spring,  although  the  seeds 
may  not  germinate  in  the  fall.  Care  should  be  exer- 
cised not  to  let  the  plants  seed  themselves  too  freely, 
as  they  are  likely  to  escape  into  unoccupied  areas  and 
become  weedy.  In  the  South,  the  Southern  Giant- 
Curled  Mustard  is  much  used,  largely  taking  the  place 
of  both  spinach  and  lettuce.  The  Chinese  Broad -Leaved 
is  a  most  robust  plant,  and  gives  a  large  amount  of 
herbage.  The  mustards  represent  several  species  of 
Brassica. 

Chinese  cabbage,  or  Pe-tsai,  resembles  a  large  and 
dense -headed  lettuce  plant  rather  than  a  cabbage.  It 
is  really  a  mustard.  It  is  one  of  the  best  and  most 
delicate -flavored  of  all  the  pot-herb  plants.  It  is  little 
known  in  this  country,  and  people  usually  make  the 
mistake  of  treating  it  like  an  ordinary  cabbage.  It  is 
a  cool -season  succession -plant,  and  runs  to  seed  with- 
out making  much  foliage  if  sown  late  in  the  season. 
It  should  be  sown  very  early  in  the  spring,  like  mustard. 
It  may  also  be  grown  as  a  fall  crop  by  sowing  the  seeds 
late  in  the  summer,  or  early  in  the  fall  in  the  more 
southern  parts.  When  well  grown,  the  plant  makes  a 
thick,  oblong  head,  resembling  a  Cos  lettuce,  and  the 
broad  white  midribs  and  tender  leaf -blades  make  it  a 
very  acceptable  product. 


Dandelion  353 

Dandelion. — The  dandelion  has  been  much  improved 
by  the  French,  and  is  grown  in  Europe  to  a  considerable 
extent  as  a  garden  plant.  It  is  also  grown  in  private 
gardens  of  this  country,  and  in  parts  of  the  East  it  is  an 
important  commercial  crop.  Some  of  the  varieties  with 
large  leaves  and  others  with  cut  or  frilled  leaves  are 
great  improvements  on  the  wild  plant,  and  the  foliage 
is  often  handsome  for  garnishing  as  well  as  useful  for 
food.  In  cultivation  the  dandelion  is  treated  as  an 
annual  crop.  The  seed  is  sown  in  early  spring  and 
the  crop  is  harvested  in  the  fall,  or  the  plants  are 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  until  the  following 
spring.  Although  dandelion  will  grow  anywhere,  it 
must  have  deep  rich  soil  and  good  tillage  if  it  is  to  make 
large  and  succulent  foliage.  Occasionally  the  seed  is 
sown  in  seed-beds  or  in  frames,  and  the  plants  are 
transplanted  to  the  field ;  but  usually  the  seeds  are  sown 
where  the  plants  are  to  stand.  The  young  plants  are 
thinned  until  they  stand  one  foot  apart  in  the  row.  The 
distance  between  the  rows  will  depend  entirely  on  the 
value  of  the  land  and  the  means  that  are  employed  for 
tilling.  If  the  plantation  is  to  be  tilled  by  hand  tools, 
the  plants  may  be  allowed  to  stand  as  close  as  one  foot 
apart  each  way;  but  if  horse  tools  are  used,  the  rows 
should  be  two  or  more  feet  apart.  Since  the  demand  for 
greens  is  usually  greatest  in  early  spring,  the  plants  are 
generally  allowed  to  stand  where  they  grow  through  the 
winter.  They  are  then  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  the  early 
growth  starts.  The  rosette  of  foliage  should  be  dense 
and  wide- spreading,  covering  a  space  from  12-20  inches 
across.  The  crop  is  harvested  by  cutting  off  the  rosette 

w 


354         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 


of  leaves  just  at  the  crown.  The  land  is  then  plowed, 
and  there  is  no  danger  that  the  plant  will -become  a 
pest.  The  small  and  inferior  plants  which  are  not  fit 
for  sale  should  also  be  cut  in  order  to  prevent  them 
from  going  to  seed  and  becoming  a  nuisance.  The  roots 
of  the  garden -grown  dandelion  are  sometimes  taken  up 
in  the  fall  and  removed  to  the  hotbed  or  forcing -house, 

and  greens  may  be 
had  during  the  cold 
weather.  Sometimes 
they  are  forced  in 
this  way  in  a  dark 
place  in  order  to  give 
blanched  leaves.  Even 
in  the  field  the  leaves 
may  be  tied  up  so  as 
to  blanch  the  inner 
part  of  the  crown, 
much  as  endive  is 
treated. 

Purslane,  or  "pus- 
ley,  "  has  been  much 
improved  by  the  arts 
of  the  plant -breeder. 
The  ordinary  pusley 
of  the  field  is  a  weak- 
stemmed  plant  trailing  on  the  ground,  whereas  the  im- 
proved, or  French  purslane,  grows  more  or  less  erect, 
and  has  very  thick  and  succulent  stems  and  very  large 
leaves.  Fig.  104.  It  is  easily  grown  in  any  good,  quick 
garden  soil  from  seeds  sown  in  early  spring  where  the 


Fig.  104.    Spray  of  French  purslane  (X 


Various   Pot -Herbs  355 

plants  are  to  stand.  It  matures  quickly,  and,  unlike 
many  other  kinds  of  pot-herb  plants,  it  is  not  injured  by 
warm  weather.  However,  the  crop  is  usually  harvested 
before  midsummer,  as  greens  are  not  in  demand  at  that 
time.  There  seems  to  be  little  danger  of  the  cultivated 
purslane  self-sowing  and  becoming  a  bad  weed. 

Other  Pot-herb  Plants. — To  the  plants  discussed  in 
the  foregoing  pages,  several  others  might  be  added. 
The  strawberry  blite  ( Chenopodium  capitatum  or  Blitum 
capitatum)  is  a  native  pig  weed -like  annual  of  easy  cul- 
ture, which  is  sometimes  offered  by  seedsmen.  It  seems 
to  have  no  unusual  merits.  An  allied  plant  is  Quinoa, 
which  is  grown  in  all  ways  like  orach.  Kale  (see  Chap- 
ter XII)  is  really  a  pot-herb  plant;  and  it  would  not  be 
great  violence  to  include  cabbage  in  this  group.  Several 
docks  and  sorrels  are  grown  as  pot-herbs,  but  as  these 
are  perennial  they  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XX. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SALAD    CROPS 

Lettuce,  Celery, 

Endive,  Celeriac. 

Chicory, 

Cress, 

Corn  Salad, 

Parsley, 

As  a  general  statement,  it  may  be  said  that  salad 
plants  require  cool  moist  soil,  and  a  quick  continuous 
growth  if  the  best  results  are  attained.  They  are  often 
benefited  by  a  special  application  of  quickly  available  fer- 
tilizers during  groivth,  particularly  of  nitrogen  in  those 
species  which  are  desired  chiefly  for  a  quick  growth  of 
leaves.  The  plants  included  in  this  chapter  are  a  some- 
what heterogeneous  company,  and  it  is  difficult  to  state 
principles  that  apply  to  all  of  them.  They  are  closely 
connected  with  the  pot-herb  crops.  Celery  and  lettuce 
have  little  in  common,  but  the  above  grouping  seems  to  be 
as  satisfactory  as  any.  Some  of  the  plants  are  used  both 
as  salads  and  pot-herbs,  as  endive;  but  they  are  placed 
in  the  group  to  which  their  most  common  use  assigns 
them .  A  salad  is  eaten  uncooked ;  a  pot  -  herb  or  "  greens  " 
is  boiled.  Horse-radish  is  properly  a  salad  plant. 

On  the  necessity  of  giving  extra  care  to  the  rearing 
of  salad  plants,  Waugh  writes*  as  follows:  "Doubtless 

*Bull.  54,  Yt.  Exp.  Sta. 

(356) 


Salad    Plants  — Lettuce  357 

all  vegetables  ought  to  be  fresh ;  but  with  salad  plants 
the  demand  is  imperative.  A  good  salad  cannot  be  made 
from  wilted  or  stale  plants.  For  this  reason  the  best 
salads  are  practically  prohibited  to  people  who  do  not 
have  their  own  gardens.  The  plants  should  be  freshly 
picked  within  half  an  hour  of  meal  time.  Up  to  this 
time  they  should  have  been  rapidly  and  vigorously 
grown.  A  rich  spot  of  ground,  plenty  of  water,  clean 
and  thorough  culture  with  favorable  weather,  must  com- 
bine for  best  results.  Dry,  tough,  wilted,  weed-choked 
plants  are  not  worth  gathering.  Yet  most  of  the  true 
salad  plants  reach  edible  maturity  so  quickly  that  any 
reasonable  attention  should  secure  good  returns.  Here 
again  it  is  not  time  and  money  that  are  required  for  suc- 
cess, but  a  little  thoughtful  promptness  of  action." 

LETTUCE 

Lettuce  is  a  hardy,  cool -season,  short -season  succes- 
sion- or  companion -crop,  requiring  mellow,  moist  soil, 
quickly  available  fertilizers  and  continuous  growth  from 
start  to  finish.  In  this  country  it  is  known  in  the  open 
mostly  as  an  early  spring  crop.  It  is  very  easy  of  cul- 
ture in  rich  and  well-prepared  soil. 

Lettuce  is  usually  grown  as  a  seed-bed  crop.  It 
is  always  a  succession-  or  companion -crop.  In  some 
cases,  particularly  for  the  midseason  and  later  crops, 
the  seed  may  be  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  stand. 
Lettuce  is  little  grown  in  America  during  the  hot  sum- 
mer months.  There  are  certain  varieties,  however, 
which  thrive  in  the  hot  weather,  those  of  the  Cos  strain 


358         The    Principles    of.  Vegetable -Gardening 

perhaps  being  the  best.  Lettuce  may  be  followed  by 
cabbages,  early  cauliflower,  celery  or  various  other  suc- 
cession-crops. Sometimes  lettuce  is  transplanted  be- 
tween the  plants  of  early  cabbages  or  cauliflowers,  since 
it  will  mature  before  the  other  plants  need  all  the  space. 
Such  companion -cropping  is  shown  in  Fig.  106.  Let- 
tuce may  be  grown  in  the  fall  from  seeds  that  are  sown 


* 


Fig.  105.     Lettuce  seedlings.    Natural  size. 

late  in  August  or  in  September.  In  such  case  it  is  best 
to  sow  in  a  seed-bed,  because  the  moisture  conditions 
can  be  controlled  better,  and  a  field  is  usually  too  dry 
at  that  time  of  the  year  to  give  quick  germination.  It 
is  essential  that  lettuce  make  a  quick  and  succulent 
growth  to  be  at  its  best.  The  large -heading  varieties 
are  not  so  much  grown  as  the  others,  since  they  demand 
somewhat  greater  care  and  are  more  particular  as  to  soil. 
Lettuce  usually  does  best  in  a  soil  that  is  loose  and 
warm,  or  one  that  the  gardeners  call  "quick."  Soils 


Lettuce 


359 


that  are  very  heavy,  and  particularly  those  that  have 
much  clay,  are  ill -adapted  to  the  crop.  For  the  late 
spring  and  summer  crops  the  seed  is  usually  sown  rather 
thickly  arid  the  thinnings  are  used  on  the  table.  The 
plants  that  are  to  attain  the  largest  size  should  stand 
as  much  as  a  foot  apart. 


Fig.  106.     Lettuce  as  a  companion-crop  to  cabbage. 

Successional  sowings  may  be  made  as  often  as  once 
in  ten  days  to  three  weeks.  The  earliest  spring  lettuce 
taken  from  the  open  is  usually  started  in  frames  or 
forcing -houses,  or  sometimes  in  boxes  in  the  house.  If 
one's  soil  is  moist,  and  particularly  if  the  exposure  is 
somewhat  cool,  the  ordinary  spring  lettuce  may  be 
grown  with  success  throughout  the  summer.  In  order 
to  secure  a  quick  growth,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to 


360         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

apply  nitrate  of  soda  soon  after  the  plants  are  set.  The 
nitrate  is  usually  sprinkled  broadcast  on  the  surface  and 
raked  or  cultivated  in.  An  application  at  the  rate  of 
200-300  pounds  to  the  acre  may  be  made  with  good 
results.  The  surface  of  the  ground  should  be  kept  well 
tilled  in  order  to  conserve  the  moisture  and  to  promote 
all  those  activities  which  result  in  quick  growth. 

Lettuce  is  commonly  grown  in  rows  8-12  inches  apart,  and 
thinned  eventually,  as  the  young  plants  are  taken  out,  to  6-12 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  For  early  use,  start  in  forcing-house, 
frame  or  kitchen.  Sow  in  succession  till  warm  weather.  Calcu- 
late on  1,000  plants  for  each  ounce  of  seed.  Most  of  the  forcing 
varieties,  started  under  glass,  are  good  for  early  use,  as  Tennisball, 
Boston  Market,  Simpson.  For  summer  use,  plant  varieties  that 
withstand  the  heat,  as  Deacon,  Hanson,  Summer  Cabbage,  Cos. 

Lettuce  (Lactuca  sativa)  is  probably  native  to  Europe  and 
Asia,  although  its  wild  prototype  is  not  definitely  known.  By  some 
it  is  supposed  to  have  descended  from  Lactuca  Scariola,  a  tall  homely 
plant  that  has  now  become  a  weed  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 
There  are  four  well-marked  tribes  or  races, — head  lettuce,  cut-  or 
curled-leaved,  Cos,  and  narrow- leaved.  The  last  is  little  known 
to  gardeners.  Goff  (in  4th  Eept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  pp.  156-202) 
reduces  the  varieties  to  87.  His  classification  is  as  follows: 

A.  Leaves  roundish  or  but  slightly  oblong,  spreading. 
B.  Borders  of  leaves  plain  or  nearly  so. 

c.  Foliage  green, 
cc..  Foliage  more  or  less  tinged  or  spotted  with 

red,  brown,  or  purple. 
BB.  Borders  of  leaves  ruffled. 

(Color  divisions  as  above.) 
AA.  Leaves  oblong,  tending  to  grow  upright. 
B.  Leaves  oval  or  spatulate. 

(Color  divisions  as  above.) 
BB.  Leaves  lanceolate. 
AAA.  Leaves  pinnately  lobed. 


Lettuce  —  Endive  361 

Kinney  (10th  Eept.  E.  I.  Exp.  Sta.,  1897)  classifies  lettuce 
chiefly  on  the  shape,  color  and  margin -characters  of  the  leaves. 
He  describes  99  varieties.  A  condensation  of  his  scheme  is  as 
follows : 

A.  Leaves  entire  near  the  apex. 

B.  Leaves  as  long  as  or  longer  than  broad, 
c.  Color  red  or  blotched. 
(Minor  divisions.) 
cc.  Color  green. 

(Minor  divisions.) 
BB.  Leaves  not  as  long  as  broad. 
AA.  Leaves  dentate  near  apex. 

(Divisions  much  as  in  A.) 

American  seedsmen  offered  119  varieties  of  lettuce  in  1889. 
For  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Nov.,  1888,  pp.  984-7. 
Field -grown  lettuce  has  few  enemies. 


ENDIVE  * 

Endive  affords  a  good  supplement  to  lettuce,  since  it 
•Is  essentially  a  summer  and  fall  crop  and  thrives  at  a 
season  when  lettuce  is  somewhat  difficult  to  grow  to  per- 
fection. The  culture  is  not  unlike  that  of  lettuce,  except 
that  the  plant  requires  a  longer  time  in  which  to  mature. 
Seeds  sown  in  June  may  be  expected  to  give  plants 
fit  for  the  table  by  August  and  September. 

In  respect  to  soil,  tillage,  distance  apart  and  other 
treatment,  the  care  of  endive  differs  little  from  that  of 
lettuce.  The  plants  should  stand  about  a  foot  apart 
each  way.  The  green,  rank  leaves  are  likely  to  be  bitter 


*  One  desiring  accessible  historical  sketches  of  some  of  the  following  vecetables 
may  consult  Sturtevant's  writings  in  American  Naturalist:  Endive,  Nov.,  1887,  p. 
980:  Chicory,  Aug.,  1887,  p.  711;  Cress,  Oct.,  1887,  p.  903;  Corn  Salad,  Sept.,  1887,  p. 
831;  Parsley,  Jan.,  1890,  p.  42. 


362         The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

and  tough.  It  is  customary  to  blanch  the  interior  leaves 
of  the  crown  or  head  by  gathering  all  the  leaves  into  a 
bunch  and  tying  them  near  the  top.  By  thus  excluding 
the  light,  the  inner  leaves  are  whitened.  This  tying 
is  done  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  plant  is  desired  for 


Fig.  107.    Endive  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

use.  In  very  hot  and  wet  weather  the  heads  are  some- 
times blanched  in  ten  days ;  but  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions it  requires  nearly  or  quite  twice  that  length  of 
time.  If  heavy  rains  and  cloudy  weather  follow  the 
tying,  the  crowns  must  be  examined  occasionally  to  see 
that  they  are  not  decaying.  After  the  interior  leaves 
are  well  blanched,  they  must  be  used  quickly  or  decay 
will  set  in.  The  later  plants,  taken  in  the  fall,  are  some- 
times blanched  by  being  set  in  cellars  or  pits;  or  if  the 
heads  are  packed  securely  in  well -ventilated  barrels,  they 
may  blanch  in  transportation. 

Endive  is  little  known  to  people  of  American  parentage,  al- 
though it  is  much  prized  by  foreigners  and  there  is  considerable 
demand  for  it  in  the  larger  cities.  It  deserves  to  be  better  known. 


Endive  —  Chicory  363 

Endive  is  a  perennial  or  biennial,  Cichorium  Endivia,  closely  allied 
to  chicory. 

"Endive  is  frequently  blanched  like  celery  or  Cos  lettuce,  by 
tying  up  the  leaves,  drawing  the  soil  up  to  the  plants,  and  similar 
means.  When  blanched  in  this  way,  the  white  varieties  especially 
give  very  pretty  white  leaves  from  the  inside  of  the  head.  For  eat- 
ing cooked,  however,  we  prefer  to  take  the  plants  quite  young,  and 
before  they  have  had  time  to  make  heads.  With  ordinary  outdoor 
culture  they  will  lose  rather  than  gain  in  tenderness  between  this 
stage  and  the  time  when  satisfactory  heads  can  be  produced. 

"Endive  may  be  sown  early  in  coldframes  or  in  the  open 
ground  like  lettuce.  Sowings  may  also  be  made  at  anytime  during 
the  summer,  although  plants  grown  in  the  heat  of  midsummer  have 
not  the  best  quality.  Fall-grown  plants  may  be  taken  up  with  a 
good  supply  of  adhering  earth  and  stored  in  a  dry  cellar  or  cold- 
frame  for  winter  use.  From  forty -five  to  fifty  days  is  required  to 
grow  the  crop."— F.  A.  Waugh,  Bull.  54,  Vt.  Exp.  Sta.,  on  "Salad 
Plants." 

CHICORY 

The  tender  blanched  leaves  that  arise  from  the 
crowns  of  chicory  roots  make  excellent  salads.  The  un- 
blanched  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  greens,  as  dande- 
lions are.  The  plants  are  grown  as  root-crops  are  ;  the 
leaves  are  gathered  in  their  natural  state,  or  are  developed 
from  roots  that  are  transferred  to  a  dark  place. 

The  roots  are  grown  as  parsnips  or  carrots  are,  and 
cuttings  of  leaves  may  be  made  during  the  season. 
One  may  also  leave  the  roots  in  the  ground  over  win- 
ter and  gather  the  crown  of  leaves  in  the  spring,  or  he 
may  take  them  to  the  cellar  or  greenhouse  and  secure 
the  leaves  in  winter.  It  is  usually  preferable  to  grow  a 
new  lot  of  plants  each  year. 

For  the  production  of  blanched  leaves,  the  strong 


364         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

roots  are  usually  taken  up  in  the  fall.  The  roots  are 
buried  in  a  sloping  direction  in  sand  in  a  pit  or  cellar, 
the  crown  projecting  an  inch  or  so  above  the  earth. 
The  place  should  be  kept  dark.  In  a  month  or  less,  the 
small  leaves  (sometimes  known  as  barbe  de  capucin) 
are  produced. 

Or,  the  best  roots  may  be  trimmed  and  then  planted 
upright  under  greenhouse  benches,  and  the  crowns  cov- 
ered two  feet  with  manure  or  other  loose  material.  The 


Fig.  108.    Seedlings  of  chicory.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

crown  of  leaves  forming  beneath  the  manure  will  resem- 
ble small  heads  of  lettuce.  These  heads  are  often 
known  as  witloof . 

Chicory  is  also  grown  for  the  roots,  which  are  eaten  as 
carrots  or  beets  are.  The  young  tender  roots  are  chosen. 

The  dry  roots  of  chicory  are  also  used  as  a  substitute 
for  coffee,  and  the  plant  is  now  coming  to  be  grown  in 
this  country  for  that  purpose.  See  Circular  29,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agric.,  1900. 

Chicory  (Cichorium  Intybus)  is  a  perennial  tall- 
growing  blue -flowered  plant  of  the  Composite  family. 


Cresses  365 

CRESS 

Cresses  are  grown  for  their  piquant  leaves,  which  are 
used  in  salads  and  garnishings.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
cresses  in  somewhat  common  cultivation,  belonging  to 
three  genera,  although  they  are  all  members  of  the  Cru- 
ciferae  or  mustard  family. 

Water  cress  (Nasturtium  officinale)  is  a  prostrate 
perennial,  with  small,  roundish  leaves,  thriving  in  very 
moist  places  and  in  running  water.  It  is  readily  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  which  may  be  scattered  along  cool 
brooks,  or  by  bits  of  the  stems  planted  in  the  mud.  In 
order  that  it  may  reach  its  best  development,  the  water 
should  be  pure,  cool,  and  clean.  When  .once  established 
in  a  permanent  place,  it  will  persist  indefinitely,  taking 
care  of  itself.  When  a  natural  brook  is  not  to  be  had, 
it  may  be  grown  in  a  moist,  shady  place  in  the  garden 
where  it  may  be  watered  frequently.  Sometimes  it  is 
grown  in  the  pit  of  an  abandoned  hotbed,  into  which 
water  may  be  run  with  a  hose.  If  the  ground  is  kept 
moist,  or  even  wet,  the  plant  will  thrive  and  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  have  it  covered  with  water.  The  plant 
is  best  grown,  however,  by  being  colonized  along  brook- 
sides  and  about  springs. 

The  common  garden  cress  (Lepidium  sativum)  is  a 
short-season  annual.  Fig.  109.  It  is  a  cool- weather 
plant.  Usually  the  leaves  are  not  desired  in  the  sum- 
mer. Seeds  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  fit  in 
the  spring,  for  the  plant  is  hardy  or  half-hardy.  A 
rather  cool  and  rich  soil  is  to  be  chosen,  for  the  value  of 
the  foliage  will  depend,  to  a  large  extent,  on  the  vigor  of 


366         The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

its  growth.  Late  in  the  season  and  in  warm  weather, 
the  plant  runs  quickly  to  seed.  For  fall  use,  the  seeds 
may  be  sown  late  in  summer  and  in  early  fall.  It  is 
easily  grown  in  pots  or  boxes  in  the  house  in  winter. 


'•v. 

Fig.  109.    Curled  cress  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

Leaves  fit  for  use  may  be  had  in  six  to  eight  weeks  from 
the  sowing  of  the  seed,  under  ordinary  conditions. 
There  are  a  number  of  varieties,  some  of  them  with 
beautifully  curled  foliage.  The  garden  cress  is  less  pop- 
ular in  America  than  abroad. 

The  upland  or  upright  cress  (Barbarea  vulgaris  and 
B.  prcecox)  is  usually  a  biennial,  the  young  plants  becom- 
ing established  from  seeds  dropped  in  summer,  arid  send- 
ing up  the  flower-stalks  early  the  following  spring.  In 
cultivation,  it  is  treated  as  an  annual  or  as  a  winter  per- 
ennial. The  seeds  may  be  sown  late  in  the  season  and 
the  young  plants  are  ready  for  use  the  following  spring; 
or  seeds  may  be  sown  in  earliest  spring.  The  plant  is 
perfectly  hardy  and  it  is  common  in  the  natural  state 
over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States.  Although  a  com- 
mon plant,  it  is  little  known  in  general  cultivation  either 
in  this  country  or  abroad. 


Cress — Corn  Salad 


367 


"Upland  cress  bears  a  considerable  resemblance,  both  in  form 
and  flavor,  to  the  better  known  water  cress.  It  will  be  acceptable 
to  many  gardeners  and  cooks  on  that  account.  The  leaves  lie  flat 
upon  the  ground,  and  are  thereby  apt  to  be  soiled  by  rains.  The 
plant  does  not  run  rapidly  to  seed,  as  does  the  garden  cress,  but 
during  hot  weather  the  leaves  soon  become  tough  and  bitter.  The 
summer  crops  are  better  grown  in  partly  shaded  situations.  The 
upland  cress  requires  a  longer  time  from  planting  to  picking  than 
the  garden  cress.  The  crop  sown  this  year  July  28,  was  ready 
September  18,  or  fifty-two  days  after  sowing.  This  term  might 
doubtless  be  shortened  by  treatment  proper  to  that  end."— F.  A. 
Waugli,  Bull.  54,  Vt.  Exp.  Sta. 


CORN  SALAD 

Corn  salad  is  grown  as  lettuce  is.  It  is  a  cool -sea- 
son crop.  It  is  hardy  and  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  fit  in  spring.  It  matures  in  six  to  eight 
weeks,  giving  a  bunch  of  leaves  somewhat  like  small- 
leaved  spinach.  In  warm  weather  and  in  dry  places,  the 
plant  soon  runs  to  seed.  It  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  and 


Fig.  110.    Corn  salad  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

protected  in  winter  as  advised  for  spinach.  If  sown  late 
in  summer,  the  plant  will  give  edible  herbage  in  the  fall, 
and  in  a  mild  climate  or  an  open  winter  it  may  be  used 
all  winter. 


368         Tlie   Principles  of  Vegetable -Gardening 

Corn  salad  or  fetticus  (Fig.  110)  is  used  both  as 
salad  and  pot-herb,  chiefly  the  former.  It  belongs  to 
the  Valerian  family,  and  is  known  to  botanists  as  Valer- 
ianella  olitoria.  It  is  native  to  Europe.  The  plant  is 
little  known  in  America,  but  is  prized  as  a  fall  and  win- 
ter salad  abroad.  It  is  very  easy  of  culture  in  any  cool 
soil.  Plants  should  stand  about  6  in.  apart  in  the  row. 
An  ounce  of  seed  should  give  2,000-3,000  plants. 


PARSLEY 

A  cool  moist  soil  is  best  suited  to  parsley.  Not  all  the 
leaves  should  be  removed  from  the  plant  at  any  one  time. 
Parsley  demands  no  special  care. 

Parsley  is  the  most  popular  of  all  garnishing  herbs. 
The  leaves  are  used  also  for  salads  and  for  flavoring. 


Fig.  111.    Parsley  seedlings.    Natural  size. 

The  plant  is  biennial,  but  the  foliage  is  gathered  the  first 
year,  and  the  plants  are  then  destroyed  unless  seed  is 
wanted.  The  seed  is  slow  to  germinate,  and  it  is  best  to 
sow  in  a  seed-bed  unless  the  ground  is  in  excellent  tilth 


Parsley  —  Chervil  369 

and  is  moist  to  the  top.  Thin  or  transplant  to  8  to  12 
inches  apart  each  way.  Make  successional  sowings.  It 
usually  requires  three  months  from  sowing  to  bring  good 
foliage  for  gathering.  The  strongest  plants  may  be 
covered  with  sash,  and  leaves  may  then  be  gathered  all 
winter.  The  plants  will  stand  considerable  frost.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  lift  a  few  roots  in  late  fall  and  set  them 
in  pots  or  boxes  in  the  house:  from  these  a  winter  sup- 
ply may  be  secured. 

Parsley  (Fig.  Ill)  is  one  of  the  UmbelliferaB  or  Pars- 
nip family.  It  is  more  or  less  subject  to  parsnip  and 
celery  insects  and  diseases.  It  is  native  to  S.  Europe. 
To  botanists  it  is  known  as  Carum  PetroseUnum. 

SALAD   CHERVIL 

The  salad  chervil  is  an  annual  plant  much  like 
parsley  and  very  popular  in  Europe,  but  little  known  in 
this  country.  It  is  used  for  garnishing  and  seasoning, 
for  which  the  curled-leaved  variety  is  the  most  popular. 
The  plant  is  of  easy  culture,  giving  a  cutting  of  leaves 
in  six  to  eight  weeks  from  the  seed.  It  does  not  thrive 
in  our  hot,  dry  summers,  and  therefore  should  be  grown 
as  a  spring  or  fall  crop,  unless  the  particular  location  is 
cool.  It  is  hardy,  and  where  winters  are  not  severe 
can  be  carried  over  the  cold  season  by  light  cold-frames 
or  even  by  protection  of  brush.  The  plant  reaches  a 
height  of  nearly  two  feet  when  mature,  but  the  young 
foliage  is  most  desired.  The  plants  should  stand  10  to  12 
inches  apart.  Salad  chervil  is  Scandix  Cerefolium,  one  of 
the  Umbelliferae,  native  to  southern  Europe.  For  turnip- 
rooted  chervil,  which  is  another  plant,  see  Chapter  IX. 
x 


370         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

CELERY 

Cool,  very  rich  and  very  moist  land,  the  lest  surface 
tillage  and  the  most  careful  attention  to  all  care  of  the 
plant,  are  requisites  of  good  celery  culture.  Celery  is 
always  a  seed -bed  crop.  It  may  be  treated  as  a  succes- 
sion- or  companion -crop,  although  it  usually  is  the  sole 
occupant  of  the  land  in  any  season.  The  leaf -stalks, 
which  are  the  edible  parts,  must  always  be  blanched. 
The  crop  must  be  stored  from  frost  if  kept  during  winter. 

Celery  is  nearly  always  grown  on  bottom  lands  be- 
cause it  then  receives  a  sufficient  and  constant  supply 
of  moisture.  Usually,  also,  such  lands  are  very  rich. 
Celery  of  excellent  quality  can  be  grown  on  uplands; 
but  ordinarily  more  care  is  required  in  securing  deep 
tillage  and  in  conserving  moisture,  and  more  expense 
is  entailed  in  adding  fertilizers.  Successful  commercial 
celery  growing  on  high  lands  is  usually  possible  only 
when  much  stable  manure  is  added  and  when  irriga- 
tion is  practiced.  Under  those  conditions,  however,  the 
celery  grown  on  high  lands  may  be  fully  as  good  as  that 
raised  in  reclaimed  marshes.  For  home  use  celery  can 
be  grown  in  almost  any  well -tilled  and  rich  garden  soil. 
Level  black-soil  marsh  or  bottom  lands,  in  which  the 
water-table  does  not  fall  below  2  or  3  feet  in  summer,  are 
usually  chosen  for  commercial  celery  growing.  Fig.  113. 

Celery  is  always  a  transplanted  crop.  The  seeds  are 
small  and  slow  to  germinate,  and  the  seedlings  are  deli- 
cate. Fig.  112. '  It  is  only  in  a  well-prepared  seed-bed 
that  satisfactory  results  can  be  expected  in  raising  the 
plants.  This  seed-bed  should  have  perfect  surface  tilth 


Celery 


371 


and  should  retain  moisture  to  the  top.  Preferably,  it 
should  be  protected  from  hot  and  dry  winds.  Some  per- 
sons prefer  to  have  the  bed  partially  shaded;  but  if  the 
shading  is  too  dense,  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  soft  and 
tender  when  taken  to  the  field,  and  they  are  killed  by 
sun -scald.  It  is  advisable,  whenever  possible,  to  have 
the  seed-bed  in  such  place  that  it  can  be  watered  every 


Fig.  112.    Celery  seedlings.    Natural  size. 

evening  if  necessary;  but  care  must  be  exercised  that 
the  watering  is  not  so  heavy  that  it  packs  and  puddles 
the  soil.  Sometimes  the  bed  is  covered  with  boards, 
brush  or  straw,  in  order  to  maintain  the  moisture  until 
germination  has  taken  place.  This  may  be  advisable,  but 
if  the  covering  is  left  on  too  long,  the  plants  make  a 
very  weak  and  spindling  growth  and  are  worthless.  If 
covering  is  used,  it  is  well  to  remove  it  gradually  as  the 
plants  germinate.  The  ideal  seed-bed,  however,  is  one 
that  does  not  need  a  cover,  but  which  holds  the  moisture 
of  itself.  In  order  to  secure  stocky  plants,  they  should 
be  transplanted  once  or  twice  in  the  seed-bed,  or  they 


372         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

may  be  thinned  until  they  finally  stand  at  2  or  3  inches 
apart.  The  labor  of  transplanting  is  so  great  that  most 
growers  now  prefer  to  secure  stocky  plants  by  the  thin- 
ning process  and  then  by  shearing  off  the  remaining 
plants  when  they  become  too  tall.  The  plants  may  be 
cut  back  a  third  or  a  half  their  growth  by  shears  or 
sickle,  or  on  large  beds  by  a  scythe. 

Celery  is  grown  as  a  short -season  crop;  that  is,  it 
does  not  occupy  the  land  during  the  whole  of  the  grow- 
ing season.  The  main  crop  is  sometimes  planted  as  a 
succession,  early  cabbages  or  other  spring  crops  having 
been  grown  on  the  land.  In  the  case  of  lowland  celery 
fields,  however,  the  celery  crop  is  commonly  the  only 
one  grown,  since  the  land  is  usually  too  wet  in  the 
spring  to  allow  of  any  early  planting.  In  some  celery- 
growing  regions,  two  or  three  crops  of  celery  are  raised 
on  the  land  at  the  same  time,  the  later  or  main  crop 
being  planted  between  the  rows  of  the  early  crop.  The 
main  or  late  crop,  which  is  used  for  winter  consumption, 
may  be  planted  in  the  field  as  late  as  the  middle  or  last 
of  July  in  the  northern  states.  The  early  crop  may  be 
set  in  the  field  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  settled  in  the 
spring,  but  there  is  relatively  little  demand  for  very 
early  celery.  The  plants  should  be  4  or  5  inches  high 
and  stocky  and  dark  green  when  they  are  planted. 
Plants  are  usually  set  from  6  to  12  inches  apart  in  the 
rows,  and  the  distance  between  the  rows  varies  with 
the  method  of  blanching. 

Celery  must  be  crisp,  tender  and  well  blanched  to  be 
fit  for  use.  The  blanching  is  accomplished  by  exclud- 
ing the  light.  There  are  three  common  methods  of 


374         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

blanching  celery  in  vogue  at  the  present  day:  by  the  use 
of  boards ;  banking  up  with  earth ;  blanching  in  pits  or 
storage. 

Blanching  by  means  of  boards  (see  Fig.  113)  is  em- 
ployed only  for  the  early  or  summer  celery,  because 
protection  from  frost  must  be  supplied  to  the  celery 
which  remains  in  the  field  after  the  first  of  October, 
and  the  boards  usually  do  not  afford  sufficient  protec- 
tion. Use  boards  one  foot  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  and 
about  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long.  If  the  boards  are 
much  longer  than  this,  they  are  awkward  to  handle. 
These  boards  are  set  on  edge  close  against  the  crown  of 
the  plant,  one  on  either  side  of  the  row,  and  the  tops 
are  tipped  together  until  they  are  only  two  or  three 
inches  apart  or  until  they  rest  against  the  plants.  The 
boards  are  held  in  this  position  by  cleats  nailed  across 
the  top,  or  by  wire  hooks.  The  first  "boarding"  is 
made  when  the  celery  is  only  tall  enough  to  show  a  few 
of  its  leaves  above  the  boards.  The  plants  shoot  up  for 
light,  making  slender,  soft  stalks.  The  foliage  fills  the 
space  between  the  boards  and  excludes  the  light  from 
above.  In  from  ten  to  twenty  days  in  warm  "growing" 
weather,  the  celery  may  be  blanched  by  this  method. 
In  any  means  of  blanching  in  summer  one  must  see 
that  the  plants  do  not  rot  at  the  heart,  as  they  are  likely 
to  do  if  they  are  too  wet  at  the  core.  The  board 
method  of  blanching  celery  is  one  of  the  most  economi- 
cal and  is  now  extensively  used  in  the  large  celery 
fields.  Growers  usually  find  that  it  pays  to  obtain  a  good 
quality  of  lumber  and  to  use  it  year  after  year.  Some 
commercial  growers  think  it  best  to  have  the  lumber 


Blanching    Celery  375 

dressed  on  both  sides.  In  the  boarding  system  the 
rows  may  be  put  simply  far  enough  apart  to  allow  of 
good  horse  tillage,  say  from  2  to  3  feet. 

Blanching  by  earth  usually  gives  a  somewhat  better 
quality  of  celery;  but  this  method  of  blanching  is 
expensive  and  it  cannot  be  employed  so  well  in  mid- 
summer, since  the  plants  are  more  likely  to  rot  at  the 
heart.  Usually  two  or  three  "handlings"  or  bankings 
are  given.  When  the  plants  have  spread  so  much  as  to 
make  a  crown  or  head  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  across, 
the  celery  is  "  handled "  by  gathering  the  leaves  in  the 


Fig,  114.    Celery  hiller.    Planet  Jr. 

hand  and  holding  them  whilst  earth  is  shoveled  against 
the  plant  so  as  to  cover  it  two -thirds  or  more  of  its 
height.  In  ten  days  or  two  weeks  the  "handling"  is 
repeated.  In  late  years  the  banking  of  celery,  particu- 
larly in  large  areas,  is  done  almost  entirely  by  means 
of  celery  plows,  which  are  implements  with  very  high 
moldboards  that  throw  a  great  quantity  of  earth  against 
the  plant.  Fig.  114.  If  celery  is  to  be  blanched  by  the 
banking  process,  the  rows  are  rarely  less  than  3%  feet 
apart,  and  if  the  tall -growing  varieties  are  used,  the 
rows  are  often  put  at  4  feet. 


376         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

Late  winter  celery  is  ordinarily  blanched  in  storage. 
If  it  is  thoroughly  blanched  before  putting  in  storage,  it 
will  not  keep  well.  It  is  usually  advisable,  however,  to 
handle  the  crop  at  least  once  in  the  field  in  order  to 
induce  a  straight,  upright  growth  and  to  begin  the 
blanching  process.  Thereafter  the  plants  are  set  in 
pits  or  sheds  so  close  together  that  the  blanching  pro- 
ceeds. 

Still  a  fourth  system  of  blanching  has  been  advocated 
in  the  last  few  years  in  the  system  known  as  the  "new 
celery  culture."  This  consists  in  growing  the  plants  so 
close  that  the  light  is  excluded  and  the  plants  blanch 
themselves.  Plants  are  usually  grown  as  close  as  6  or 
8  inches  apart  either  way.  It  will  be  seen  that  this 
system  can  be  used  only  when  the  soil  is  very  rich  and 
when  there  is  a  large  supply  of  moisture.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  it  is  not  successful.  Whenever  the 
water-table  is  close  to  the  surface  or  when  one  can 
practice  irrigation,  it  may  be  considered.  It  is  usually 
successful  in  small  home  gardens  where  one  can  use  a 
hose. 

There  are  two  or  three  methods  of  storing  celery. 
Storing  in  outside  cellars  or  pits  has  already  been 
described  on  pages  229,  232.  The  early  winter  and  mid- 
winter celery,  however,  is  usually  stored  in  special  celery 
houses,  which  are  permanent  sheds  with  windows  at 
intervals  along  the  roof,  in  order  to  supply  light  enough 
for  the  workmen.  Wooden  chimneys  are  provided  to 
afford  ventilation.  These  houses  are  sometimes  provided 
with  heat  by  means  of  stoves,  so  that  the  temperature 
does  not  fall  much,  if  any,  below  the  freezing  point. 


Celery  377 

Iii  beds  in  these  houses  the  celery  plants  are  set  close 
together  and  the  blanching  proceeds  during  storage. 

For  market,  celery  is  prepared  by  being  thoroughly 
washed  and  usually  scrubbed,  so  that  all  earth  and  sand 
are  removed.  The  outside  leaves  are  removed  and 
usually  the  root  is  trimmed  away,  leaving  a  pointed  base 
to  the  whole  cluster.  These  plants  are  then  shipped  in 
open  trays  or  boxes,  the  style  of  box  and  the  number  to 
be  packed  in  each  depending  largely  on  the  market  in 
which  one  sells. 

In  celery,  calculate  from  20,000  to  30,000  plants  per  acre. 
There  is  usually  much  loss  in  seeds  and  young  plants,  and  it  is 
therefore  advisable  to  sow  the  seed  very  thick.  One  ounce  of  seed 
to  200  feet  of  row  in  the  seed-bed  is  a  liberal  allowance.  Some 
gardeners  estimate  2,000  good  plants  from  each  ounce  of  seed,  but 
this  allows  for  an  unusual  amount  of  loss.  An  ounce  should  give 
from  5,000  to  10,000  good  plants,  after  allowing  for  several  times 
that  amount  in  loss.  One  pound  of  celery  seed  should  give  enough 
strong  plants  to  set  four  to  five  acres. 

Celery  is  planted  6  to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  rows 
vary  from  2  to  4  feet  apart.  In  the  "new  celery  culture,"  or 
self-blanching  system,  the  plants  are  set  6  to  7  inches  apart  each 
way,  requiring  about  150,000  to  the  acre. 

White  Plume,  Golden  Self -Blanching,  and  Kalamazoo  are 
popular  summer  and  fall  varieties,  and  are  also  used  for  winter. 
For  late  winter  or  spring  use,  the  product  being  blanched  in  pits, 
Boston  Market  or  Arlington  is  a  standard.  There  are  pink-stemmed 
varieties;  also  very  tall  varieties,  now  little  grown. 

Thirty-seven  varieties  were  advertised  by  American  seedsmen 
in  1889  (Annals  Hort.).  Sturtevant  has  written  the  history  of 
celery  in  Amer.  Nat.,  July,  1886,  pp.  599-606.  See  also  brief  note 
by  the  same  author  in  Amer.  Nat.,  Aug.,  1887,  p.  705.  Goff  has 
monographed  the  varieties  in  6th  Rept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.,  Sta.  (for 
1887),  pp.  217-225.  He  reduces  the  varieties  to  26.  The  classifi- 
catory  scheme  is  as  follows : 


378         The    Principles   of   Vegetable  -  Gardening 

A.  Stems  neither  self -blanching  nor  tinted  with  red. 
AA.  Stems  not  self -blanching,  but  more  or  less  washed  or  tinted 

with  red. 
.  Stems  distinctly  self -blanching. 


Celery  is  Apium  graveolens  of  botanists.  It  belongs  to  the 
Umbelliferse,  together  with  carrot,  parsley,  parsnip.  It  is  native 
to  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  and  was  in  cultivation  before  the 
Christian  era.  The  long,  thick,  blanching  leaf -stalks  are  a  result 
of  domestication.  *If  careful  attention  is  not  given  to  selection  or 
"rogueing"  in  the  seed-field,  the  varieties  soon  run  down  and 
become  green-stemmed,  slender,  stringy  and  worthless. 

On  insects  and  diseases,  consult: 

Mich.  Bull.  No  102.     Insects  injurious  to  celery. 

Leaf  blight,  Dept.  Agric.  Eept.  1886,  pp.  117-120;  N.  J.  12th 

Kept.  1891,  p.  250  ;  Cornell  Bull.  132,  pp.  203  205;  Ct.  21 

Kept.,  pp.  167-171.    Cornell:  Copper  carbonate.    Dip  young 

»  plants  in  weak  solution,  and  treat  young  growing  plants  at 

intervals  of  2  weeks.     Ct. :  Sulfur  dusted  on. 

Leaf  spot,  N.  Y  Bull.  51 ;  Cornell  Bull.  132.  N.  Y. :  Eeject  dis- 
eased seed.  Treat  with  Bordeaux  in  seed  bed;  continue 
with  Bordeaux  if  attack  is  anticipated. 

Diseases  in  storage,  Cornell  Bull.  132.  See  p.  229  of  this 
book. 

Special  celery  literature:  Consult  the  special  books  by  Greiner, 
Vaughan,  Van  Bochove,  Hollister,  Rawson,  Stewart,  Crider. 
Roessle's  "How  to  Cultivate  Celery,"  1860,  long  since  out  of  print, 
was  the  first  American  Book  to  be  devoted  wholly  to  a  special 
vegetable -garden  crop.  It  is  beautifully  printed  in  large  clear 
type,  and  it  has  a  colored  frontispiece  of  "Rose  Colored  Celery." 
Mr.  Roessle  had  other  similar  handbooks  in  view,  but  none  of  them 
seems  to  have  been  published.  Greiner's  is  a  general  treatise. 
Vaughan 's  gives  particular  attention  to  methods  employed  about 
Chicago;  Van  Bochove's  to  Kalamazoo  methods;  Hollister's  to 
large-area  work  in  marsh  lands ;  Rawson's  to  the  Boston  methods; 
Stewart's  to  methods  in  vogue  in  Southern  Michigan. 


Turnip  -  rooted    Celery  379 

CELERIAC 

Celeriac  is  a  form  of  the  celery  species,  in  which  the 
root  is  enlarged  like  a  small  tuber,  and  this  tuber  is  the 
edible  part.  It  is  used  either  as  a  salad  or  as  a  cooked 
vegetable.  The  plant  is  dwarf  and  celery-like  in  appear- 
ance, but  requires  no  blanching.  It  is  grown  as  cel- 
ery in  so  far  as  seed -so  wing,  transplanting,  and  tillage 
are  concerned.  Sometimes  the  seed  is  sown  where  the 
plants  are  to  stand,  but  since  the  seeds  are  as  slow  to 
germinate  as  those  of  celery,  this  is  usually  not  the  best 
plan.  The  plants  are  given  6  or  8  inches  space  in  the 
row,  and  the  rows  are  only  far  enough  apart  to  allow  of 
convenient  tillage.  The  roots  may  be  kept  in  winter 
by  being  packed  in  sand  or  moss,  as  other  vegetables 
often  are. 

Celeriac  is  much  prized  abroad,  but  it  is  little  known  to 
native-born  Americans.  It  deserves  to  be  better  known.  Several 
varieties  are  offered  by  American  seedsmen ;  six  were  advertised 
in  1889.  Goff  described  five  types  in  1887  (6th  Kept.  N.  Y.  Exp. 
Sta.,  pp.  215  217).  Sturtevant  writes  of  its  history  in  Amer.  Nat., 
August,  1887,  pp.  703-4.  It  is  known  to  botanists  as  Apium 
graveolens  var.  rapaceum.  It  is  sometimes  known  as  turnip -rooted 
celery.  A  good  root  should  be  3-4  inches  in  diameter.  In  seed  - 
ing,  calculate  quantity  of  seed  as  for  celery. 


CHAPTER   XV 

PULSE   CROPS 
Pea,  Beans. 

BOTANIC  ALLY  peas  aud  beans  are  very  closely  re- 
lated, but  they  have  few  points  in  common  from  the  cul- 
tural point  of  view,  since  peas  are  hardy,  cool -season 
plants  and  beans  are  tender  and  warm -season  plants. 
Both  are  leguminous  crops,  and  are  therefore  capable  of 
using  atmospheric  nitrogen.  As  garden  crops,  how- 
ever, they  may  need  applications  of  nitrogen  in  order  to 
secure  a  quick  start,  particularly  if  an  early  crop  is  de- 
sired. "It  is  frequently  the  wiser  economy  to  apply 
nitrogen,  particularly  if  they  are  raised  upon  land  which 
has  not  been  previously  planted  with  these  crops,  and 
thus  may  not  possess  the  specific  nitrogen -gathering 
bacteria."  * 

PEA 

Peas  are  a  partial -season  crop,  requiring  cool  season 
and  a  soil  not  over  rich;  seed  is  sown  where  the  plants  are 
to  stand;  grown  in  drills;  hardy. 

Garden  peas  are  of  the  easiest  culture.  They  thrive 
best  in  spring  rather  than  in  summer,  but  they  also 
thrive  in  fall  from  late -sown  seeds.  In  summer  they 


*Voorhees'  Fertilizers,  269. 

(380) 


Pea 


381 


are  very  liable  to  mildew.  Peas  and  onions  are  the  first 
vegetables  to  be  sown  in  the  open  ground.  Even  before 
freezing  weather  is  past,  peas  may  be  planted.  It  is 
customary  to  plant  them  3-5  inches  deep :  the  roots  are 
then  deep  enough  to  be  in  cool  and  moist  soil. 

A  light' soil  is  preferable,  particularly  when  earliness 
is  desired.  A  very  rich  soil  tends  to  make  the  plants 
run  to  vine  and  to  delay  the  crop.  Successional  sow- 
ings should  be  made  at  intervals  of  six  to  ten  days. 


Fig.  115.    Pea  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

For  early  use,  the  dwarf  varieties  should  be  selected. 
For  the  main  or  late  crop  the  tall  or  climbing  sorts, 
which  are  more  productive,  are  preferred.  Pinching-in 
the  excessive  growths  tends  to  make  the  tall  varieties 
somewhat  earlier.  Early  in  August  in  the  Northern 
states  dwarf  varieties  may  be  sown  for  fall  use.  As  a 
field  crop,  peas  are  now  extensively  grown  for  canning 
factories  (see  Bull.  41,  Del.  Exp.  Sta.).  For  this  pur- 
pose they  are  sown  broadcast  or  drilled  in.  If  broad- 


382         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

casted  they  are  not  tilled.     Better  results  are  secured  by 
sowing  in  drills  and  giving  two  or  three  tillings. 

Peas  are  usually  sown  in  two  rows  that  stand  6-8  inches 
apart.  If  tall  varieties  are  grown,  one  row  of  brush  or  chicken  - 
wire  (the  wire  is  better)  will  answer  for  both  rows;  if  the  dwarf 
kinds  are  grown,  one  row  will  help  to  support  the  other.  Between 
each  two  pairs  of  rows  a  space  should  be  left  wide  enough  for  con- 
venient tillage.  The  plants  should  stand  3-4  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  One  pint  of  seed  of  the  small -seeded  varieties  will  sow 
100-125  feet  of  single  drill.  In  drills,  1-2  bushels  will  sow  an 
acre;  broadcast,  2-3  bushels. 

Peas  are  of  two  kinds:  the  seed  wrinkled  and  the  seed  smooth. 
The  wrinkled  are  the  better  in  quality,  but  the  seeds  are  more 
liable  to  decay  when  planted  very  early.  There  are  dwarf  and 
tall  varieties  of  both  the  wrinkled  and  smooth  types.  For  very 
early  there  are  many  popular  strains,  as  First-of-All,  Philadel- 
phia, Daniel  O'Eourke,  American  Wonder,  McLean  Little  Gem, 
Blue  Peter.  For  late,  Marrowfat,  Champion  of  England,  Tele- 
phone, Telegraph,  and  Stratagem  are  popular  names. 

A  race  of  peas  with  edible  pods,  comparable  to  string  beans, 
is  considerably  grown  abroad  but  is  little  known  here.  These  are 
known  as  edible-podded,  or  sugar  peas.  These  are  of  the  same 
species  as  the  common  pea,  Pisum  sativum. 

The  field  pea,  with  purple -and- white  flowers  and  gray  angular 
seeds,  is  probably  only  a  modified  form  of  Pisum  sativum.  It  is 
known  as  P.  sativum  variety  arvense.'  The  pea  is  native  to  south- 
west Europe.  It  has  been  cultivated  2,000  years  and  more.  For 
history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Feb.,  1890,  pp.  144-149. 

In  1889  (Annals  Hort.),  American  seedsmen  catalogued  154 
names  of  peas.  Goff  (in  3d  Eept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  pp. 
228-283)  fully  describes  98  varieties.  The  main  points  of  his 
classificatory  scheme  are  as  follows: 

A.  Plant  exceeding  4  feet  in  height. 

B.  Seeds  cream -colored  or  white. 
o.  Smooth  peas. 

D.  Pod  straight. 
DD.  Pod  recurved. 


Peas  —  Beans  383 

cc.  Wrinkled  peas. 

(Pod  as  in  0.) 
BB.  Seeds  green,  bluish,  etc. 

(Divisions  as  in  B.) 
AA.  Half  dwarf;  plant  2-4  feet  high. 

(Divisions  as  in  A.) 

AAA.  Dwarf;  plant  not  exceeding  2  feet. 
(Divisions  as  in  A.) 

For  insects  and  diseases,  see : 

Pea-weevil  or  bug,  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  45;  Florida  No.  36. 
The  leading  pea  pest.  Kill  the  insect  in  the  dry  peas  by 
bisulfide  of  carbon. 

Moth,  Canadian  Exp.  Farms  Kept.  1894,  p.  187; 'Kept.  1897,  p. 
194.  Picking  early,  and  rotation. 

Powdery  mildew,  N.  J.  Rept.  No.  14,  p.  357.  Fungicides  in 
spray. 

Louse,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bull.  26;  Del.  Bull.  49. 
Device  is  used  for  brushing  lice  off,  the  cultivator  follow- 
ing. „ 

BEANS 

Garden  beans  represent  several  species,  but  all  the  com- 
mon kinds  are  very  tender  to  frost  and  require  a  warm 
season  and  sunny  exposure  ;  seed  is  sown  where  the  plants 
are  to  grow  ;  usually  grown  in  drills,  except  the  tall 
kinds;  the  common  bush  beans  are  partial -season  plants. 

The  common  bean  is  grown  in  two  general  types: 
the  bush  bean,  and  the  pole  bean.  In  this  country  the 
bush  bean  is  by  far  the  more  important  since  its  grow- 
ing obviates  the  labor  and  expense  of  providing  support 
on  which  the  plants  may  climb.  Bush  beans  are  grown 
both  as  a  field  crop  and  a  garden  crop.  As  a  garden 
crop  they  are  used  mostly  as  "string"  beans,  the  pods 
being  picked  when  they  are  two -thirds  grown,  and  the 


384          The   Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

pod  and  beans  together  being  eaten.  There  are  certain 
strains  of  bush  beans  that  are  particularly  adapted  to 
this  use.  They  are  such  as  have  thick  and  fleshy  pods, 
with  very  little  fibrous  tissue  on  the  sutures.  The  pods 
of  a  good  string  bean  are  those  which  have  no  "strings." 
The  pods  snap  cleanly  in  two,  and  this  gives  rise  to  the 
common  term  of  "  snap "  beans.  In  order  that  string 
beans  may  be  of  the  best  quality,  they  should  make  a 


Fig.  116.    Seedlings  of  wax  bean.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

rapid  and  continuous  growth.  The  soil  should  be  rich 
and  in  excellent  tilth.  Plant  only  after  the  weather  has 
become  thoroughly  settled.  In  late  summer,  plant  again 
for  fall  use.  A  succession  may  be  had  all  summer. 
Although  beans  are  nitrogen  -  gathering  plants,  it  is 
nevertheless  advisable  to  apply  a  little  nitrogen  at  the 
start  on  land  which  is  not  well  supplied  with  humus  or 
in  which  beans  have  not  been  grown  within  a  year  or  two. 
There  are  other  types  of  garden  beans  used  as  "shell" 
beans.  The  large,  soft  seeds  are  used  just  before  they 


Beans 


385 


begin  to  harden,  and  the  pods  are  not  eaten.  Some  of 
the  best  of  these  shell  beans  are  pole  or  running  varie- 
ties, the  Cranberry  or  so-called  Horticultural  Lima  be- 
ing amongst  the  most  popular. 

Lima  beans  demand  a  long  season  and  continuous 
growth,  particularly  the  tall  or  true  Lima  varieties. 
Very  often  the  flowers  are  blasted  by  the  hot,  dry 
weather  of  midsummer.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  get 


Fig.  117.    Lima  beau  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

the  plants  established  as  early  as  possible  in  order  that 
some  of  the  fruit  may  set  before  the  hottest  weather.  It 
is  important  that  only  the  earliest  and  quickest  soil  be 
used  and  that  quickly -available  fertilizers  be  applied 
when  the  seeds  are  planted.  Soils  that  are  light  and 
sandy  are  usually  preferable.  In  these,  plant -food  acts 
quickly  and  the  plant  secures  a  good  and  very  early 
start.  The  tall  varieties  must  have  poles.  When  poles 
are  scarce,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  set  rather  strong  stakes 
10  to  12  feet  apart  and  to  run  wires  or  heavy  cord  from 


386         The   Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

pole  to  pole,  one  strand  near  the  top  and  one  within  a 
foot  or  so  of  the  ground,  and  then  to  connect  these 
horizontal  strands  with  perpendicular  cords.  Sometimes 
several  plants  or  hills  of  Lima  beans  are  planted  in  a 
semicircle  around  one  strong  stake,  and  strings  are  run 
from  the  top  of  the  stake  to  the  ground,  making  a  cone. 
This  is  a  very  good  plan  for  the  home  garden,  since  the 


Fig.  118.    Broad  or  Windsor  bean  seedlings.     Two-thirds  natural  size. 

vines  are  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  but  is  too  laborious  for 
general  market  cultivation.  In  commercial  plantations, 
one  bare  pole  is  ordinarily  provided  for  each  hill. 

In  the  northern  states,  it  is  usually  inadvisable  to 
attempt  to  grow  the  large,  late  Lima  beans  unless  one's 
soil  is  particularly  quick  and  the  exposure  is  very  warm. 
The  seasons  are  usually  too  short,  and  the  nights  are 
likely  to  be  too  cool.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  best 


Lima    Beans 


387 


to  rely  largely  on  the  Sieva  kinds,  none  of  which  are  very 
high  climbers  and  some  of  which,  as  Henderson  and 
Jackson,  are  nearly  or  quite  "bush"  in  form  and  in  habit. 
These  Sieva  beans  are  very  heavy  croppers  and  mature 
in  the  short  seasons  of  the 
North.  Although  the  beans 
are  not  very  large,  the  qual- 
ity is  good.  The  dwarf 
Limas  are  excellent  for 
northern  gardens. 

Bush  beans  are  sown  in 
drills,  the  rows  being  18  to  30 
inches  apart  to  allow  of  easy 
tillage.  The  plants  should  stand 
5  to  10  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
One  pint  will  sow  from  75  to 
125  feet  of  drill,  depending  on 
the  variety.  In  drills,  1  bushel 
to  5  pecks  is  sown  to  the  acre. 
The  tall  or  pole  beans  are  usu- 
ally grown  in  hills. 

Lima  beans  are  usually 
grown  in  hills  3  to  4  feet  apart 
each  way.  Five  or  6  plants  may 
stand  in  each  hill. 

The  White  Dutch  Runner 
bean  (Phaseolus  multiflorus)  is 
grown  as  the  tall  forms  of  the 
common  bean  are.  Used  mostly 
as  shell  beans,  but  sometimes 
as  snap  beans. 

The  Broad,  Windsor,  or 
English  Dwarf  beans  ( Vicia 

Faba)  are  erect-growing  plants,        Fig  m    Willow.leaf  Sieva  bean. 
much  raised  in  Europe,  but  lit-  Full  size. 


388         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

tie  grown  in  this  country  because  of  our  hot  climate.  They  are 
used  as  shell  beans;  also  for  stock.  They  are  as  hardy  as  peas. 
Sow  early  in  a  cool  place  in  drills  2  to  3  feet  apart. 

In  1883,  Wing  described  102  varieties  of  beans,  distributed  in 
several  species  (2d  Rept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  235-259). 
They  were  first  classified  into  their  species.  The  subdivisions 
were  made  chiefly  on  the  shapes  and  colors  of  the  seeds.  In  1889, 
American  seedsmen  listed  141  names  of  garden  beans,  4  of  Wind- 
sor or  Broad  beans,  13  of  Limas. 

The  garden  beans  are  all  members  of  the  Leguminosse.  The 
botanical  places  of  the  commonest  kinds  are  as  follows: 

Bush  and  ordinary  pole  beans,  Phaseolus  vulgaris.  Fig.  116. 
Now  believed  to  be  a  native  of  tropical  America.  See 
Gray  and  Trumbull,  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.  26:130  (Aug. 
1883);  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  May,  1885,  pp.  448-452, 
and  April,  1887,  pp.  327-333;  Wittmack,  Berichte  der 
Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesell.  6:374  (1888). 

Sieva  or  Carolina  Limas,  Phaseolus  lunatus.     Tropical  Amer- 
ica.     Fig.  119. 
Tall   or   Large    Limas,    Phaseolus    lunatus   var.    macrocarpus. 

South  America.     Figs.  117,  120-123. 
White  Dutch    Runner  and    Scarlet  Runner,   Phaseolus  multi- 

florus.     South  America. 

French  Yard-Long,  Dolichos  sesquipedalis-     South  America. 
Soy. ,  Glycine  hispida.     Japan. 
Broad  or  Windsor,  Vlcla  Fdba.     Asia.     Fig.  118. 
Velvet,  Mucunau tills,  Asia;  sometimes  eaten. 

For  a  monograph  of  the  common  bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris) 
the  student  should  consult  Von  Martens'  "Die  Gartenbohnen," 
1869. 

For  an  account  of  the  Dwarf  Limas,  see  Bailey,  Bull.  87,  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta.  (1895);  of  the  Pole.  Limas,  Bull.  115,  Cornell  Exp. 
Sta.  (1896).  For  further  history  of  Lima  beans,  see  Sturtevant, 
Amer.  Nat.  Aug.,  1899,  pp.  665-67;. >  -:% 

"The  Lima  beans  are  natives  of  warm  countries.  The  large 
flat  Limas  are  perennials,  or  at  least  plur-annuals,  in  their  native 
countries.  They  therefore  require  a  long  season,  and  one  who  ex- 


Lima    Beans 


389 


pects  to  grow  them  in  the  North  should  endeavor  in  every  way  to 
shorten  the  period  of  growth.  This  may  be  done,  in  the  first  place, 
by  planting  the  earlier  varieties ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  by  ex- 
ercising great  care  in  the  selection  of  soil  and  in  giving  particular 
attention  to  cultivation.  Light  and  so-called  'quick'  soils  are 
best.  Soils  which  are  naturally  sandy  and  loose,  but  which  have 
been  enriched  in  previous  years  by  the  addition  of  manure,  are  ex- 
cellent for  Lima  beans,  especially  if  they  have  a  warm  exposure. 


A 

Fig.  120. 

Leaf  of  Extra-Early  Lima,  one  of 
the  large  Lima  class  (X  M) 


Fig.  121. 

Mammoth  Kidney-shaped. 
Half  size. 


The  soil  should  also  be  dry.  Coarse,  raw  manure  should  be  avoided 
for  Lima  beans,  because  it  tends  to  make  too  rank  and  too  late 
growth.  If  any  fertilizer  is  applied  the  year  in  which  the  beans 
are  planted,  it  should  be  such  as  will  become  available  very  quickly 
and  therefore  tend  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  crop.  We  prefer, 
therefore,  to  use  some  of  the  concentrated  fertilizers,  especially 
those  which  are  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  avoid  those 
which  contain  very  much  nitrogen.  If  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are 


390         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 


used  at  all,  they  should  be  applied  in  comparatively  small  amount 
and  be  of  such  kind  that  they  will  give  up  their  fertility  early  in 
the  season.  If  ordinary  stable  manure  is  used,  it  should  be  applied 
in  the  fall  in  order  that  it  may  become  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  soil  and  be  ready  for  use  at  the  earliest  moment  in  the 
spring." — Cornell  Bull.  115. 

The  Limas  may  be  thrown  into  the  following  classes : 
1.  The  Sieva  or  Carolina  bean  ( Phaseolus  lunatus},  a  small  and 
slender  grower  as  compared  with  the  large  Limas,  early  and  rela- 


Fig.  122.    Leaf  of  Challenger,  one  of 
the  Potato  Lima  class  (X  %). 


Fig.  123.    Challenger. 
Half  size. 


tively  hardy,  truly  annual,  with  thin,  short  and  mostly  broad 
(ovate-pointed)  leaflets,  numerous  small  papery  pods  which  are 
much  curved  on  the  back  and  provided  with  a  long  upward  point 
or  tip  and  which  split  open  and  twist  when  ripe,  discharging  the 
seeds;  beans  small  and  flat,  white,  brown,  or  variously  marked 
with  red.  Fig.  119. 

2.  The  true  Lima  bean  (P.  lunatus  var.  macrocarpus) ,  distin- 
guished from  the  Sieva  by  its  tall  growth,  lateness,  greater  suscepti- 
bility to  cold,  perennial  in  tropical  climates,  large,  thick,  often 
ovate-lanceolate  leaflets,  and  fewer  thick,  fleshy,  straightish  (or 
sometimes  latterly  curved)  pods  with  a  less  prominent  point  and 


Types  of  Lima  Beans  391 

not  readily  splitting  open  at  maturity ;  seeds  much  larger,  white, 
red,  black  or  speckled.  Of  this  true  or  large  Lima  there  are 
two  types  in  cultivation: 

(a)  The  Flat  or  Large-Seeded  Limas,  which  have  large,  very  flat 
and  more  or  less  lunate  and  veiny  seeds,  very  broad  pods 
with  a  distinct  point,  and  broad  ovate  leaflets.     See  Figs. 
120  and  121.     Burpee  Dwarf  is  a  form  of  this. 

(b)  The  Potato  Limas,  with  smaller  and  tumid  seeds,  shorter 
and  thicker  pods  with  a  less  prominent  point,  and  long- 
ovate  leaflets  tapering  from  a  more  or  less  angular  base 
into  a  long  apex.     See  Figs.  122,   123.     Challenger  and 
Kumerle  are  examples.     There  are  dwarf  forms. 

For  insects  and  diseases  of  beans,  consult: 

Weevil,  Lintner,  7th   Rept.  N.  Y.  Entomologist,  p.  255,  very 

full,  with  ills. ;  Me.  Eept.  1893,  p.  171,  ill.    Use  bisulfide 

of  carbon,  as  for  pea  bug. 
Anthracnose,  N.  Y.  Bull.  48,  very  fully  ill.     Remove  infected 

seedlings  from  field.    Cover  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Rust,  N.  Y.  Bull.  48. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SOLANACEOUS  CROPS 

Tomato,  Pepper, 

Eggplant,  Husk  Tomato. 

Tomatoes,  eggplants,  and  their  kin  are  hot -season 
plants.  They  require  nearly  or  quite  the  entire  season 
in  which  to  mature.  Usually  they  grow  until  killed  by 
frost,  at  least  in  the  North,  and  the  production  of  a 
heavy  crop  depends  largely  on  securing  an  early  start. 
They  are  seed-bed  crops,  and  they  need  abundance  of 
quick -acting  fertilizers  applied  relatively  early  in  their 
growth.  They  are  grown  in  hills. 

These  plants  are  here  called  solanaceous  crops  be- 
cause they  belong  to  the  family  Solanacea3.  To  this  fam- 
ily also  belongs  the  potato,  so  that  these  plants  have  not 
the  exclusive  right  to  the  name;  but  the  writer  knows 
of  no  other  single  term  which  can  be  applied  to  them. 

TOMATO 

Essential  points  in  the  culture  of  tomato  are  :  long, 
warm  season;  "quick"  soil  with  available  fertility;  fre- 
quent, or  at  least  two  or  three  transplanting s  to  obtain 
stocky  and  continuous -growing  plants,  particularly  in  the 
North;  early  fruiting  to  mitigate  loss  from  fruit -rot  and 
to  secure  a  heavy  crop  before  frost;  planting  in  hills. 

(392) 


Tomato 


393 


In  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  tomato  is 
grown  with  the  greatest  ease.  In  fact,  the  fruit  is  grown 
more  abundantly  in  this  country,  and  to  a  greater  degree 
of  perfection,  than  elsewhere  in  the  world.  The  plants 
are  usually  started  from  four  to  eight  weeks  before  they 


,rMv# 


Fig.  124.    Tomato  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

are  transplanted  to  the  field.  Fo'r  the  home  garden  it  is 
well  to  handle  the  young  tomato  plants  in  pots;  but  in 
commercial  operations  this  is  scarcely  practicable.  The 
present  custom  is  to  grow  them  in  small  flats  not  more 
than  ten  or  twelve  inches  square  and  that  hold  about 
two  inches  of  soil.  In  some  cases,  even  smaller  flats  are 
used.  In  these  boxes  the  plants  are  displayed  in  the 
grocery  stores  for  sale  to  amateur  planters.  In  flats  of 
various  sizes,  the  plants  can  be  readily  handled  from  the 
frame  to  the  field.  In  commercial  business,  the  young 
tomato  plants  are  now  rarely  transplanted.  They  are 
thinned  in  the  flats  so  that  they  stand  two  or  three 
inches  apart  each  way,  or  farther  than  this  if  the  plants 
are  started  very  early.  Sometimes  the  plants  are  sheared 
if  they  become  too  tall  and  "leggy,"  although  this  is  not 
the  best  practice.  In  the  Middle  and  Southern  states, 


394         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

cloth -covered  frames  are  often  used  for  starting  tomato 
and  other  plants.  Fig.  125.  The  cloth  is  rolled  up 
during  the  day.  The  securing  of  a  good  crop  of  toma- 
toes in  the  North  depends  very  largely  on  having  vigor- 
ous and  stocky  plants  that  are  well  in  advance  of  the 


Fig.  125.    Cloth-covered  frames. 

Used  in  the  South  for  tomatoes,  tobacco,  and  other  plants.    The 
it  and : 
arle.) 


US>C>U     111     l/UC!      OVJUCH      1\JL     tUXllC*lVC 

muslin  is  used  for  protection  at  night  and  in  cold  weather,  and  is  rolled 
up,  as  shown,  in  the  day.     (After  E; 


season,  and  a  warm,  quick  soil.  The  plants  should  be 
set  in  the  field  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  settled. 
Thereafter  they  need  no  special  care  except  to  keep  the 
land  well  tilled. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  very  rich  soil  is  not  to  be 
advised  for  the  tomato.  This  is  probably  true  as  re- 
spects the  heavy  application  of  stable  manure,  for  such 


Tomato  395 

manure  usually  gives  up  its  fertility  somewhat  slowly 
and  tends  to  keep  the  plant  in  vigorous  growth  and  to 
delay  fruiting.  If,  however,  the  soil  has  been  made  rich 
by  previous  applications  of  manure,  or  of  available 
commercial  fertilizer  early  in  spring,  the  best  results 
may  be  expected.  Experiments  at  Cornell  University 
have  shown  that  a  rather  light  single  application  of 
nitrate  of  soda  about  the  time  the  plants  are  set,  gives 
better  results  than  twice  that  amount  applied  at  inter- 
vals as  late  as  the  middle  of  August. 

Tomatoes  usually  give  earlier  and  better  results  when 
the  vines  are  trained ;  but  the  expense  of  training  pre- 
cludes its  use  in  large  commercial  plantations.  The  best 
mode  of  training  for  early  results  is  to  prune  the  plant 
to  a  single  stem,  tying  it  to  a  perpendicular  cord.  The 
cord  is  secured  at  top  and  bottom  to  horizontal  strands 
which  are  stretched  between  strong  stakes.  When 
tomatoes  are  trained  in  this  way,  they  may  be  set  as 
close  as  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  There  are  various 
styles  of  racks  for  supporting  tomato  plants.  The  best 
are  those  that  give  the  plants  full  exposure  to  sun 
and  allow  all  the  fruits  to  hang  toward  the  outside  of 
the  trellis  rather  than  to  be  covered  by  foliage.  In  com- 
mercial plantations,  the  plants  are  allowed  to  spread  as 
they  will,  although  the  fruit -rot  disease  is  usually  more 
serious  under  such  conditions,  particularly  if  the  surface 
soil  contains  much  coarse  manure.  Pinching-in  the 
shoots  is  thought  to  conduce  to  early  bearing. 

When  frost  threatens,  the  largest  green  tomatoes  may 
be  picked  and  allowed  to  ripen  in  drawers  or  in  other 
dry  and  close  places.  Usually  they  color  well  and  develop 


396         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

a  good  quality.  If  the  fruits  have  not  reached  their  full 
size,  the  whole  plant  maybe  pulled  with  the  fruits  On 
and  hung  in  a  barn  or  other  dry  place  and  the  fruits  will 
abstract  nourishment  from  the  vine  and  sometimes  com- 
plete their  ripening. 

Tomatoes  are  now  grown  on  a  very  large  scale  for 
canning  factories.  They  are  then  a  field  crop,  and  are 
given  no  greater  care  than  corn.  A  rather  light,  warm 
soil  is  chosen.  Frame -grown  plants  are  used  and  they 
may  be  set  with  a  transplanting  machine.  Thereafter 
no  special  treatment  is  given-  the  crop  except  to  keep 
the  land  well  tilled. 

Tomato  plants  are  usually  set  4-5  feet  apart  each  way  in  rich 
garden  soil.  In  field  conditions,  they  are  usually  set  3-4  feet.  On 
light  and  early  lands  they  are  sometimes  planted  3x3  feet.  From 
1  ounce  of  seed,  about  2,000  to  2,500  good  plants  should  be 
obtained.  At  3x4  feet,  an  acre  will  require  3,630  plants.  A  large 
yield  is  12-16  tons  to  the  acre;  the  average  is  much  below  this. 

Varieties  quickly  run  out  (see  Essay  24,  "Survival  of  the  Un- 
like"), and  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  mention  the  particular 
kinds  in  a  book  like  this.  Even  though  the  Trophy  name  is  still  in 
catalogues,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  variety  as  originally 
known  is  now  in  existence.  Large  round  "smooth"  varieties— 
without  angles  or  creases — are  now  grown  almost  exclusively. 
Fig.  126. 

"  Most  commercial  growers  [in  the  South]  use  cotton  cloth  for 
covering  coldframes,  as  it  is  much  cheaper  than  glass,  and  is 
much  easier  to  handle  in  opening  and  closing  the  beds.  Fig.  125. 
Ordinary  unbleached,  double-width  or  ten-fourths  wide  sheeting 
is  used.  One  side  is  nailed  fast  to  the  back  side  of  the  bed  or  in 
double  beds  to  the  ridge-pole,  and  the  other  is  nailed  between  two 
Ix  2-inch  strips,  thus  making  a  square  roller  on  which  the  cur- 
tain is  rolled  up  when  it  is  wished  to  open  the  bed.  By  starting 
with  one  short  and  one  long  piece,  so  as  to  break  joints,  such  a 


Tomato    Notes  397 

roller  can  be  made  any  desired  length.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
provide  some  extra  cover  for  each  coldframe  to  use  on  very  cold 
nights,  for  the  single  thickness  of  cloth  will  not  turn  more  than  a 
slight  frost.  The  beds  should  always  be  well  banked  at  the  ends 
and  sides  with  earth."—  F.  S.  Earle,  Bull.  108,  Ala.  Exp.  Sta. 
(1900). 

"  Consolidated  Summary  of  Results  of  Methods  of  Training 

YIELD   SOUND        YIELD  ROTTEN      PER  CENT  ROT- 
VINES,    HOW    TREATED.  FRUIT.  FRUIT.  TEN. 

Untrained 157  Ibs.  14  oz.  34  Ibs.  7  oz.  20. 

Staked 197    "      5   "  15    "    7   "  7.9 

Hilled . 184    "10    "  20    "14   "  10.8 

Mulched 253    "    14    "  44    "    4    "  17.5 

This  summary  shows  that  (a)  the  smallest  yield  was  given  by 
the  untrained  vines;  and  that  (b)  the  percentage  of  rotten  fruit  on 


Pig.  126.    Type  of  the  large  round  American  tomato. 

these  was  greater  than  in  any  other  case ;  that  (c)  staked  vines  gave 
a  larger  percentage  of  sound  fruit  than  untrained,  and  (d)  showed 
the  smallest  percentage  of  decayed  fruit  in  the  experiment;  (e) 
hilling  did  not  give  any  striking  results;  (/)  mulching  greatly 
increased  the  productiveness,  and  (g)  also  the  tendency  to  rot. 
These  are  the  results  obtained  during  a  year  of  unusually  large 
precipitation  during  June,  and  marked  by  light  rainfall  in  August 
and  September."— John  Craig,  Bull.  47,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  (1900). 


398         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

"  By  pruning,  commercial  growers  mean  the  pinching  out  of  all 
lateral  branches  as  soon  as  they  appear,  thus  confining  the  growth 
strictly  to  one  stem.  When  about  three  clusters  of  fruit  are  set 
the  vines  are  topped,  thus  stopping  all  farther  growth  of  vine,  and 
turning  the  energies  of  the  plant  entirely  to  the  growth  and  ma- 
turing of  the  fruits  that  are  already  set.  The  advocates  of  this 
system  claim  that  it  greatly  increases  the  size  of  the  individual 
fruits  and  that  the  bulk  of  the  crop  ripens  several  days  earlier  than 
on  unpruned  plants.  Of  course  each  plant  produces  fewer  fruits 
than  when  allowed  to  grow  unchecked,  but  this  is  partly  compen- 
sated for  by  increased  size  and  by  the  closer  planting  that  is  pos- 
sible on  this  system,  thus  allowing  a  greater  number  of  plants  to 
the  acre.  In  several  of  the  more  important  tomato -growing  re- 
gions this  system  is  very  widely  followed." — F.  S.  Earle,  Bull.  108, 
Ala.  Exp.  Sta. 

u  Tomatoes  in  very  Severe  Locations. — When  there  is  danger  of 
frost  in  August,  a  sufficient  supply  of  tomatoes  for  family  use 
may  be  grown  on  the  south  side  of  a  house,  wall  or  other  pro- 
tection, especially  if  the  plants  are  covered  on  cold  nights. 
Where  this  seems  to  be  impracticable,  a  most  excellent  way  is  to 
grow  a  few  plants  in  barrels  placed  in  warm  corners  about  the 
buildings.  To  do  this,  at  planting  time  select  a  barrel  as  large 
as  a  coal-oil  barrel,  bore  three  or  four  holes  in  the  bottom,  sink 
the  barrel  about  one -third  its  depth  in  the  ground  and  pack  the 
earth  around  it.  Fill  it  about  half  full  of  fresh  horse  manure 
well  tramped  down  and  pour  a  bucketful  of  hot  water  on  this 
manure.  Then  put  on  8  inches  of  good  soil  and  then  a  mixture 
of  well -rotted  manure  and  rich  black  loam  in  about  equal  quan- 
tities, until  you  reach  within  about  12  inches  of  the  top  of  the 
barrel ;  then  heap  up  manure  around  the  outside.  Set  three  plants 
in  this  and  trim  to  two  shoots  each.  Train  one  of  these  shoots 
from  each  plant  to  stakes  or  nearby  building,  but  allow  the  other 
three  shoots  to  grow  naturally  over  the  sides  of  the  barrel.  Be 
careful  to  give  plenty  of  water  daily — a  gallon  each  day  will  be 
none  too  much.  Three  or  four  old  barrels  treated  in  this  way  and 
placed  in  sunny  exposure  will  produce  all  the  tomatoes  needed  by  a 
family  of  four  or  five  persons." — Green,  Veg.  Gard.  2d  ed.,  p.  197. 


Tomato   Notes  399 

Following  are  summary  conclusions  respecting  the  field  culti- 
vation of  tomatoes  as  derived  from  six  years'  experiment  (Bull. 
32,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.): 

" Fertilizing. — Very  heavy  fertilizing  with  stable  manures  or 
concentrated  fertilizers  has  uniformly  increased  yield  in  our  ex- 
periments, although  the  common  opinion  is  to  the  contrary.  But 
in  order  that  fertilizing  shall  produce  early  fruits,  the  food  mate- 
rials must  be  quickly  available.  If  stable  manure  is  desired,  only 
the  most  thoroughly  disintegrated  part  should  be  used.  Nitrate 
of  soda  is  a  good  tomato  fertilizer  on  soils  containing  abundance 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  like  other  incomplete  fertiliz- 
ers it  has  little  value  when  used  alone  on  poor  soils.  Nitrate  of 
soda  appears  to  give  heaviest  yields  when  used  in  two  or  three 
applications,  but  in  this  latitude  it  should  not  be  applied  later 
than  the  first  of  August,  else  it  prolongs  growth  too  late. 

"  There  appear  to  be  differences  in  varieties  as  to  the  readiness 
with  which  they  respond  to  fertilizing.  In  our  tests  of  1891,  un- 
improved or  Cherry  tomatoes,  while  showing  a  less  increase  in 
number  of  fruits  than  the  large  varieties  under  heavy  fertilizing, 
suffered  no  loss  in  size  of  fruits  and  consequently  gave  a  greater 
proportionate  crop. 

"In  1889,  tests  indicated  that  poor  soil  may  tend  to  render 
fruits  more  angular.  [Probably  due  to  the  dryness  of  the  poor 
soil.] 

"Starting  the  Plants,  Transplanting,  etc.  —  Frequent  trans- 
planting of  the  young  plants  and  good  tillage  are  necessary  to 
best  results  in  tomato  culture  in  this  latitude. 

"Plants  started  under  glass  about  ten  weeks  before  transplant- 
ing into  field  gave  fruits  from  a  week  to  ten  days  earlier  than 
those  started  two-  or  three  weeks  later,  while  there  was  a  much 
greater  difference  when  the  plants  were  started  six  weeks  later. 
Productiveness  is  greatly  increased  by  the  early  planting. 

"Very  early  setting  of  stocky  plants  in  the  field,  even  in  dark 
and  raw  weather,  augmented  earliness  and  productiveness  in  1890. 
This  year  [1891]  the  same  results  were  secured  except  that  there 
was  less  gain  in  earliness  from  very  early  setting.  The  tomato 
can  endure  much  more  uncongenial  weather  when  set  in  the  field 


400         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

than  is  commonly  supposed.  Early  setting  on  well  prepared  land 
therefore  appears  to  be  advisable. 

"In  1891,  two  transplantings  gave  better  results  than  one  or 
three ;  but  the  value  of  transplantation  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  the  earliness  of  sowing,  the  character  of  the  plants  and 
facilities  for  handling. 

"Seedling  plants  are  better  than  cuttings. 

"Trimming  the  plants  lightly  in  midsummer  appears  to  in- 
crease yield  and  earliness.  But  it  should  not  be  performed  in 
this  latitude  after  the  first  half  of  August. 

"Training.  —  Training  to  stakes  is  not  desirable  unless  the 
plants  are  pruned.  Plants  tied  to  two  or  three  stakes,  the  vines 
being  wound  about  them,  as  often  recommended,  ripen  their  fruits 
unevenly  and  the  labor  of  picking  from  the  tangled  mass  of  foli- 
age is  great. 

"A  platform  of  boards  laid  under  the  plants  and  supported  by 
blocks  4  or  5  inches  high  and  then  covered  with  straw  keeps  the 
tomatoes  clean  and  renders  picking  easy,  but  it  appears  to  in- 
crease the  rot. 

"A  cheap  and  rough  rack  which  gives  good  results  is  made 
of  narrow  slats  laid  crosswise  the  row  upon  two  parallel  bents 
which  stand  on  either  side  of  the  row  and  about  3  feet  apart. 
These  bents  run  lengthwise  the  row  and  are  made  by  nailing  a 
light  board  to  stakes  every  6  or  8  feet.  The  bents  or  sides  stand 
about  a  foot  high.  The  plants  lop  on  the  cross  slats — which  may 
be  laid  on  loosely— and  the  fruits  ripen  uniformly  and  are  usually 
more  exempt  from  rot  than  those  lying  on  the  ground. 

"Training  to  a  single  stem  greatly  increases  the  yield  per 
square  foot,  gives  earlier  fruits,  and  decreases  injury  from  rot. 
This  system  is  advisable  for  home  use,  and  -in  some  cases  for 
market  plantations. 

"Hilling  the  plants  twice,  as  .potatoes  are  hilled,  has  given  no 
beneficial  results.  '~  ;• 

"  '  Leggy '  "  or  badly  drawn  plants  can  be  made  to  give  fairly 
good  results  by  setting  them  deep  and  burying  the  larger  part  of 
tjie  slender  stem.  But  even  then  they  are  inferior  to  stocky 
plants," 


Tomato   Notes  401 

For  history  of  the  tomato,  see  Sturtevant,  6th  Rept.  N.  Y. 
State  Exp.  Sta.,  pp.  279-2S4,  Amer.  Nat.,  Aug.  1891,  pp.  702- 
706,  and  Sept.  1891,  pp.  800-803;  Bailey,  Bull.  19,  Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  ( 1886)  and  Essay  30,  "  Survival  of  the  Unlike  " ;  also  chief  note 
by  Gray  &  Trurabull,  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.  26,  p.  128  (Aug.  1883). 
The  tomato  is  native  of  Peru,  and  perhaps  of  other  parts  of  the 
Andean  region.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  aborigines  and  was  early 
taken  to  Europe.  At  first,  the  tomato  was  grown  as  a  curiosity. 
Its  commercial  cultivation  is  scarcely  more  than  75  years  old.  In 
1889,  American  dealers  catalogued  tomatoes  under  81  varietal 
names.  In  1887,  Goff  (6th  Eep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.)  described 
65  varieties. 

Following  is  a  botanical  classification  of  the  tomato  (Bailey, 
Bull.  32,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.*): 

The  common  tomato  species,  Lycopersicum  esculentum,  may  be 
divided  into  five  primary  divisions  :  the  cherry  tomatoes  (var. 
cerasiforme) ,  plum  and  pear  tomatoes  (var.  pyriforme),  the  common 
market  tomatoes  (var.  vulgare),  the  large-leaf  kinds  like  Mikado 
(var.  grand ifolium) ,  and  the  upright  or  tree  sorts  (var.  .validum). 
The  common  tomatoes  (var.  vulgare)  can  again  be  divided  for  pur- 
poses of  classification  into  three  subdivisions  :  the  oblong,  angu- 
lar and  apple-shaped  tomatoes.  The  currant  tomato  is  a  distinct 
species,  Lycopersicum  pimpinellifolium  or  "pimpinella-leaved  to- 
mato." In  tabular  form,  the  classification  of  the  tomato  may  stand, 
therefore,  as  follows: 

I.  Lycopersicum  pimpinellifolium.     This  has  not  yet  varied  to 
any  extent  in  cultivation,  and  the  one  variety  is  known   as  the 
Currant  and  German  Raisin. 

II.  Lycopersicum  esculentum.      The  parent  of  all  commercial 
tomatoes. 

(a)  Var.  cerasiforme.  Cherry  tomatoes,  characterized  by  slen- 
der growth  and  small  light- colored  foliage,  and  small  globular 
fruits  which  are  normally  2- celled.  Red  and  yellow  varieties  are 
known. 

(6)  Var.  pyriforme.      Pear  and  plum  tomatoes,  distinguished 


*  Consult  also  Bull.  19,  Mich.  Agric.  College  (1886),  and  Bull.  31  (1887). 
Z 


402         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

from  the  preceding  subdivision  chiefly  by  the  pear-shaped  or  ob- 
long pendent  fruit.  Bed  and  yellow  varieties  are  known.  The 
Nesbit's  Victoria  has  foliage  much  like  that  of  Section  d. 

(c)  Var.  vulgare.    The  common  tomatoes,  represented  by  three 
main  groups: 

1.  Oblong  tomatoes :  Fruit  as  long  as  or  longer  than  broad, 
the  walls  very  thick  and  firm,  the  placentae  usually  not  meet- 
ing the   inside  of  the  wall,  causing   the  fruit   to  feel    as  if 
hollow.      Bed  and  purple  varieties  are  known.      Represented 
by  King  Humbert  and  Criterion. 

2.  Angular   tomatoes:     Fruit  medium    or   below  in  size, 
mostly  very  flat,   plane   on    top,  more    or   less  cornered,  the 
lobes  most  conspicuous  on  the  bottom  and  sides.     This  is  the 
type  of  the  original  Large  Red,  the  first  market  tomato.     The 
type  is  almost   lost  in  many  of  our  later  improvements,  and 
it  is  now  too  inconstant,  perhaps,  to  be  relied  upon  as  a  sec- 
tional character.      The  angular  tomatoes    are    practically  out 
of  cultivation  in  this  country.     In  many  of  the  varieties  the 
leaves  are  singularly  curled.     Only  red  varieties  are  known, 
but  many  of  them  are  very  light  or  orange-red,  and  one,  the 
German  Gestreifte,  is  striped  with  orange.         • 

3.  Apple-shaped  tomatoes:    Fruit  various  in  size  or  shape, 
but  in  normal  forms  more  or  less  rounded  on  top,  the  mon- 
strous or  overgrown  specimens  developing  a  scar-like  line  or 
ring  on  the  top  and  the  ends  of  the  fruit  turning  downwards. 
These  comprise  by  far  the  larger  number  of  the  tomatoes  of 
the  present  time.     Some  of  the  varieties,  like  Green  Gage, 
Peach,  and  White  Apple,  are  much  like  the  Cherry  tomatoes 
(var.  cerasiforme)  and  should,  perhaps,  be  classed  with  them. 
Red  varieties  predominate,  but  purple,  yellow  and  white  va- 
rieties exist. 

(d)  Var.  grandifolium .   Large-leaf  tomatoes.    Habit  and  fruit  as 
in  section  c;  leaves  very  large;  leaflets  fewer  than  common  (about 
two  pairs),  large  (the  blade  three  to  four  inches  long  and  an  inch 
and  a  half  wide),    entire,    the    lower    side   strongly   decurrent. 
Leaves  of  very  young  plants  entire !     The  terminal  leaflet  is  often 
six  inches  long  and  four  or  more  inches  broad.     Represented  by 


Tomato— Eggplant  403 

Mikado,  Puritan,  Shah,  and  others.  The  first  of  the  well-marked 
grandifolium  varieties  were  purple,  but  a  yellow  one  is  grown, 
and  this  year  [1891]  a  red  one  (Red  Mikado)  has  appeared. 

(e)  Var.  validum.  Upright  tomato.  Stem  very  thick  and  stout, 
the  plants  nearly  sustaining  themselves,  two  to  two  and  a  half 
feet  high;  leaves  very  dark  green,  short  and  dense,  the  leaflets 
wrinkled  and  more  or  less  recurved.  An  odd  plant  with  much 
the  aspect  of  a  potato  plant.  Eepresented  by  the  French  Upright 
or  Tree,  which  has  red  fruits.  The  Dwarf  Champion  is  perhaps 
a  cross  between  this  type  and  the  common  tomatoes.  The  Sta- 
tion tomato  which  is  a  cross  between  French  Upright  and  Alpha 
(var.  vulgare)  has  given  an  interesting  series  of  variations. 

Diseases,  etc.  The  chief  diseases  of  tomatoes  are  rot  and 
blight.  There  is  no  specific  for  either  disease.  Rot  is  rarely 
very  serious  during  the  entire  season.  Endeavor  to  get  the  crop 
early,  before  the  rot  takes  it.  For  blight,  practice  rotation,  and 
burn  diseased  vines  (do  not  throw  them  on  the  manure  pile). 
Consult  the  following: 

Tomato  worm,  Fla.  Bull.  48,  desc.  and  ill. ;  Ky.  Bull.  66. 
Use  Paris  green. 

Rot  and  fruit  mold,  Dept.  Agric.  Rept.  1888,  p.  339,  desc.  and 
ill.  Thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  recom- 
mended by  some.  See  remarks  on  p.  392,  two  last  lines. 

Scab, .Dept.  Agric.  Rept.  1888,  p.  347,  desc.  and  ill.;  Conn. 
Bull.  115.  Train  high  and  use  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Blight.     Practice  rotation.     See  paragraph  above. 

For  special  literature  on  tomatoes,  consult  the  books  of  Living- 
ston, Root,  Day,  Mitchell. 


EGGPLANT 

The  essentials  in  eggplant  culture  are  practically  the 
same  as  in  tomato  culture,  except  that  the  plant  requires 
a  still  longer  season,  and  greater  pains  must  be  taken  that 
the  young  plants  are  not  checked. 


404         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

The  eggplant  is  emphatically  a  hot  -  climate  crop. 
It  is  grown  in  the  South  to  a  large  extent  as  a  commer- 
cial crop  and  even  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey  and  Long 
Island.  In  the  northernmost  states,  it  is  grown  only  for 
home  use,  as  a  rule.  It  demands  a  long  season,  a  warm, 
loose  and  fairly  dry  soil.  It  is  not  adapted  to  clay 
lands.  The  plants  are  started  under  glass,  and  they 
should  be  6  or  8  inches  high  and  thrifty  and  stocky 
when  placed  in  the  field.  In  the  northern  states  the 
plants  may  be  even  larger  than  this  when  transplanted. 
It  is  very  important,  however,  that  the  plant  receives 
no  check  from  the  germination  of  the  seed  to  the  set- 
ting of  the  fruit.  If  the  plants  in  the  forcing -house 
or  hotbed  become  crowded  and  stunted,  and  the  stems 
begin  to  harden,  the  crop  will  be  very  much  lessened. 
For  home  use,  and  sometimes  for  special  market  condi- 
tions, it  is  advisable  to  handle  the  young  plants  in  two- 
inch  or  three -inch  pots.  They  then  suifer  no  check 
when  taken  to  the  field. 

The  exposure  should  be  warm  and  sunny.  The  land 
should  not  be  so  moist  as  that  which  is  best  adapted  to 
early  peas,  beets  and  other  cool- season  things.  The 
ground  should  be  rich  also,  but  it  is  very  important  that 
whatever  fertilizer  is  added  should  be  quickly  available  so 
that  the  maturity  of  the  crop  may  not  be  delayed.  Take 
every  precaution  to  forward  the  crop  in  order  to  secure 
it  before  the  closing  of  the  season,  particularly  in  the 
northern  states.  The  ground  should  be  kept  in  thorough 
tillage  from  first  to  last. 

Th'e  fruits  are  fit  for  eating  from  the  time  they 
are  one-third  grown  until  they  are  nearly  or  quite  fully 


Eggplant  405 

ripe.  Even  after  the  fruits  have  reached  their  full  size 
and  color,  they  may  remain  on  the  plant  for  a  time  with- 
out much  deterioration,  although  a  very  ripe  fruit  is 
worthless.  A  heavier 
crop  may  be  secured 
by  taking  off  the  fruits 
before  they  reach 
their  full  size.  It  is 
necessary,  however, 
that  they  be  well  col- 
ored in  order  to  find 
sale  in  the  market, 
and  usually,  also,  the 
fruits  of  fair  or  rather 
large  size  sell  best. 
In  the  northernmost 
states  the  gardener  is 
satisfied  if  he  aver-  Fig.  127.  Black  Pekin  Eggplant. 

ages  two  or  three  good  fruits  to  a  plant  of  the  large  va- 
rieties. 

Eggplants  are  set  in  rows  that  are  far  enough  apart  to  admit 
of  horse  tillage,  usually  3%-4  feet.  In  the  rows  the  plants  are 
set  from  2-4  feet.  The  distance  is  determined  largely  by  the 
variety.  An  ounce  of  eggplant  seed  should  give  from  2,000  to 
3,000  strong  plants. 

The  New  York  Improved  and  the  Black  Pekin  (Fig.  127)  are 
the  leading  commercial  types  of  e'ggplant.  Good-sized  marketable 
fruits  of  these  varieties  are  6-9  inches  in  diameter.  Unless 
started  very  early  and  given  a  warm  place  and  quick  soil,  how- 
ever, these  varieties  are  not  likely  to  yield  much  before  frost  in 
the  northernmost  states.  In  these  short-season  climates,  some  of 
the  dwarf  varieties,  particularly  the  Early  Dwarf  Purple,  are  to 
be  advised.  The  white  eggplants  are  not  popular,  since  the  color 


406         The    Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

is  usually  of  a  yellowish  cast.  There  are  varieties  with  striped 
fruits  and  others  with  long  and  coiling  fruits,  but  these  are  known 
mostly  as  curiosities. 

Eggplant  has  been  grown  from  the  earliest  times.  It  is  prob- 
ably native  to  India.  It  is  a  low  spreading,  bushy,  more  or  less 
hairy  and  spiny  herb  (or  subshrub),  with  large  blue  flowers.  It  is 
known  also  as  Aubergine  and  Guinea  Squash. 

It  is  the  Solanum  Melongcna  of  botanists,  but  the  aboriginal 
type  is  not  in  cultivation.  An  historical  sketch  by  Sturtevaut 
appears  in  Amer.  Nat.,  Nov.,  1887,  pp.  975-9.  Goff  reduced 
the  varieties  to  twelve. in  1887  (6th  Rept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta., 
pp.  273-9) ;  fourteen  names  were  offered  by  American  seedsmen 
in  1889.  He  divided  them  into  four  main  groups  on  color  dis- 
tinctions, and  made  minor  divisions  on  shape  of  fruit.  In  1891 
the  present  writer  described  (in  Bull.  26,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.), 
fifteen  varieties.  He  made  the  following  botanical  scheme: 

I.  Solanum  Melongena,  var.  esculentum.    Plant  stout  and  erect, 
mostly  tall;   leaves  and  branches    more  or  Jess   densely  scurfy; 
leaves  mostly  conspicuously  angled  or  lobed,  thick ;  flowers  large 
and  thick,  on  stout  peduncles ;  fruit  various,  globular  or  oblong, 
white  or  purple.     The  ordinary  form  of  the  eggplant  is  well  shown 
in  Fig.  127. 

Var.  serpentinum.  This  differs  from  the  var.  esculentum  chiefly 
in  the  greatly  elongated  fruit,  which  is  curled  at  the  end,  and 
perhaps  it  is  not  worth  separation.  It  is  a  most  singular  eggplant. 

Var.  depressum.  Plant  low,  weak  and  diffuse,  dark  colored, 
nearly  smooth,  always  spineless;  leaves  small  and  comparatively 
thin,  more  entire,  often  scarcely  angled;  flowers  small,  mostly 
long-peduncled;  fruit  purple,  pyriform. 

II.  Solanum  integrifolium.     This  species  is  sold  as  the  Chinese 
Scarlet  and  Ornamental  eggplant,  and  it  is  the  one  that  has  been 
lately  distributed  as  a  great  novelty  under  the  name  of  tomato 
eggplant.      It  goes  under  the  name  of   Solanum  coccineum.      Its 
nativity  appears  to  be  wholly  unknown.     Dunal  says  that  S.  integri- 
folium is  a  native  of  Mauritius,  but  Baker,  in  his  flora  of  Mauritius, 
does  not   mention  it.     It  is  probably  African.     At    any  rate,    it 
appears  to  be  proper  to  recall  the  name  under  which  it  was  long 


Eygplant 


407 


known  in  early  times,  and  call  it  the  Ethiopian  eggplant.  The 
Ethiopian  eggplant  is  a  coarse  plant  three  feet  high,  with  large 
lobed  leaves  and  the  stems,  petioles  and  midribs  armed  with  strong 
and  very  sharp  spines  a  half  inch  long.  The  small  white  flowers 
are  usually  borne  in  clusters  of  two  to  six.  The  fruit  is  small, 
rarely  much  exceeding  2  inches  in  diameter,  bright  scarlet  or 
yellow  and  conspicuously  lobed  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Early 
Red  tomato.  We  have  grown  two  types  of  this  plant,  one  of 
strong  upright  growth  with  purple  stems,  petioles  and  midribs, 


Fig.  128.     Seedlings  of  red  pepper,  or  capsicum.    Natural  size. 

the  other  of  spreading  habit  and  lighter  color.  The  species  is 
only  curious  and  ornamental,  the  fruits  not  being  eaten. 

Two  or  three  obscure  fungous  diseases  attack  the  eggplant  in 
the  South,  for  which  the  only  treatment  is  to  practice  rotation  and 
to  destroy  the  affected  plants.  The  potato  bug  often  attacks  egg- 
plants. Use  Paris  green,  1  pound  to  75-100  gallons  of  water,  and 
plenty  of  lime. 

For  account  of  leaf  spot,  see  N.  J.  Kept.,  1890,  p.  355.  Use 
Bordeaux  spray. 


408         The   Principles   of    Vegetable- Garden  tmj 


PEPPER 


Peppers  require  the  treatment  advised  for  tomatoes, 
but  they  will  thrive  in  a  rather  cooler  season  and  will  en- 


Fig.  129.    One  of  the  Chili  Red  Peppers. 

dure  some  frost,  although  best  results  are  secured  in  a 
warm  climate.  Some  of  the  varieties  mature  in  a  rela- 
tively short  season. 

Peppers  are  not  an  important  crop  in  most  parts  of 
the  country,    since  their  use  in  cookery  is  incidental. 


Pepper  —  Husk   Tomato 


409 


The  greatest  demand  is  for  the  making  of  mixed  pickles, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  small  Cayenne,  Chili,  and  Cran- 
berry varieties  are  grown.  Fig.  129.  The  large  "sweet 
peppers,"  of  the  Sweet  Mountain  and  Euby  King  type, 
are  used  for  the  dish  known  as  "stuffed  peppers.'7 

The  plants  are  started  in  frames,  and  are  set  eight  to 
twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row.  There  are  no  serious 
pests  or  diseases. 

The  pepper  (often  called  "red  pepper,"  although  there  are  yel- 
low-fruited and  white-fruited  varieties)  is  a  Capsicum,  the  common 
garden  forms  now  being  referred  to  one  species,  C.  annuum.  It  is 
very  distinct  from  the  pepper  of  commerce,  which  is  the  fruit  of 
Piper  nig  rum,  of  another  family.  The  capsicums  are  native  to 
the  American  tropics.  For  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat., 
Feb.,  1890,  pp.  151-157;  also  Irish's  monograph  in  9th  Rept.  Mo. 
Bot.  Gard.,  pp.  53-110,  with  many  plates  (1898).  Capsicum  annuum 
'is  remarkably  variable,  and  many  of  the  cultivated  forms  have  been 
described  as  species  at  one  time  or  another.  Originally  the  fruit 
had  two  cells  or  compart- 
ments, but  under  the  in- 
fluence of  domestication, 
the  compartments  have 
been  multiplied. 


HUSK    TQMATO 

Two  or  three  spe- 
cies of  Physalis  are 
cultivated  as  husk  to- 
mato and  strawberry 
tomato.  They  are 
very  diffuse  or  even  decumbent  hairy  herbs  that  produce 
a  yellowish  often  glutinous  berry  inside  a  papery  husk. 


Fig.  130.    Fruit  of  a  husk  tomato. 
Natural  size. 


410         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

There  are  several  native  species,  some  of  which  are 
known  as  ground  cherry.  The  soft,  sweetish  fruits  are 
sometimes  used  for  preserves  and  pickles,  or  they  may  be 
eaten  raw  or  cooked.  The  plants  are  of  the  easiest  cul- 
tivation. In  the  North  it  is  preferable  to  start  seeds  in 
frames.  The  Cape  Gooseberry  is  a  species  that  rarely 
ripens  a  full  crop  in  the  northern  states,  but  the  Dwarf 
Cape  Gooseberry  produces  freely  as  far  north  as  Ontario. 
The  Cape  Gooseberry  is  Physalis  Peruviana  (Fig.  130), 
a  tropical  species;  the  Dwarf  Cape  gooseberry  or  com- 
mon husk  tomato,  is  P.  pubescens,  a  native  species. 
For  sketch  of  the  cultivated  species,  see  Bull.  37,  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

CUCURBITOUS   OB    VINE   CROPS 

Cucumber,  Pumpkin, 

Gherkin,  Squash, 

Muskmelon,  Preserving  Melon, 

Watermelon,  Luffa. 

Cucurbitous  crops  are  annuals,  grown  for  their  fruits  ; 
they  are  tender  to  frost ;  they  require  a  warm  season  and 
a  full  exposure  to  sun;  they  are  long -season  crops  and 
with  most  of  them  a  quick  start  is  essential  in  order  that 
they  may  mature  the  crop  before  fall ;  they  are  grown  in 
hills,  as  a  main  crop  ;  they  are  planted  in  the  field  or  in 
frames,  depending  on  the  region  and  the  period  at  which 
the  crop  is  wanted;  they  transplant  with  difficulty,  and 
if  the  plants  are  started  in  advance  of  the  season  they  are 
grown  in  pots,  boxes  or  on  sods. 

Cucurbitous  crops  are  so  called  because  they  are 
members  of  the  family  Cucurbitacea3.  They  comprise  a 
very  natural  group,  both  botanically  and  culturally. 

There  are  no  fundamental  differences  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  various  Cucurbitous  crops.  They  are  all  very 
tender  to  frost  and  they  usually  grow,  at  least  in  the 
North,  till  overtaken  by  frost  or  disease.  They  all  de- 
mand light  and  very  quick  soil.  Success  lies  in  gaining  an 
early  start  and  in  not  allowing  the  plants  to  suffer  a  check. 
The  one  place  at  which  most  people  fail  in  growing  these 

(411) 


412         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

crops  is  that  the  young  plants  do  not  secure  a  quick  hold 
on  the  soil.  This  is  usually  due  to  the  fact  that  the  soil 
is  not  thoroughly  well  prepared  or  is  not  warm  and  well 
drained,  and  there  is  not  sufficient  available  fertilizer 
within  reach  of  the  young  plant.  In  the  North,  this 
quick  start  is  exceedingly  important,  since  the  season  is 
so  short  that  every  day  must  be  made  to  count.  In  cu- 
cumbers, the  quick  start  is  not  so  important  as  in  melons 
and  squashes,  since  the  plants  come  into  bearing  earlier. 
Many  fields  of  squashes  in  the  North  are  lost  because  the 
plants  do  not  get  to  work  before  July  or  August,  and 
then  the  dry  weather  comes  and  the  blooming  is  de- 
layed so  long  that  the  young  fruits  are  caught  by  frost. 

All  cucurbitous  crops  are  grown  in  hills.  Usually 
each  hill  should  be  specially  prepared,  at  least  in  the 
northern  states,  and  on  land  that  is  rather  hard  and 
coarse.  A  space  1  or  2  feet  across  is  spaded  up  loosely, 
and  light,  loose  earth  or  scrapings  from  the  barnyard  are 
mixed  with  it.  A  handful  of  fertilizer  should  be  scattered 
in  the  soil.  If  the  land  is  hard  and  late,  it  is  well  to 
remove  the  soil  and  to  fill  the  space  with  fine  earth  and 
manure.  In  the  warm  and  light  melon  lands  of  the 
South,  where  the  seasons  are  longer,  this  precaution 
may  not  be  necessary. 

The  young  plants  are  very  likely  to  be  ruined  by  the 
attacks  of  the  striped  beetle  and  other  enemies.  It  is  im- 
portant, therefore,  that  the  seed  be  sown  freely.  If  one- 
fourth  or  one -fifth  of  the  plants  escape  their  enemies, 
the  grower  may  consider  himself  fortunate.  In  some 
cases  growers  plant  pumpkin  or  squash  seeds  in  the  field 
very  early  in  order  to  attract  the  striped  beetle  where 


Squashes  and  the  Like  413 

they  may  be  killed,  and  the  later  frame -grown  melon 
or  cucumber  plants  are  then  relatively  safe. 

Squashes,  watermelons  and  cucumbers  are  usually 
planted  in  the  field,  although  if  early  results  are  wanted 
and  if  the  region  is  cold  and  the  season  short,  it  is  well 
to  start  them  in  frames.  Muskmelons  are  usually 
started  in  frames.  All  cucurbitous  plants  transplant 
with  difficulty ;  therefore  it  is  advisable  to  plant  the 
seeds  on  inverted  sods,  in  pots  or  in  small  boxes. 
These  methods  have  been  described  in  some  detail  on 
pages  190  to  194.  It  is  imperative  that  the  plants  be 
stocky  and  hard  when  taken  to  the  field,  although  they 
must  not  be  stunted.  If  they  have  been  grown  too 
warm  and  are  "soft,"  they  will  be  injured  by  the  sun 
and  winds  when  transplanted,  and  will  be  later  than 
plants  that  are  started  directly  in  the  field. 

The  land  should  be  given  the  best  of  surface  tillage. 
Every  effort  should  be  made  to  get  the  plants  so  well 
established  that  the  fruits  begin  to  set  before  the  severe 
weather  of  midsummer.  The  plants  and  the  fruits  are 
succulent  and  need  much  moisture,  and  if  this  moisture 
is  lost  in  the  spring  through  lack  of  proper  preparation 
of  the  land  and  neglect  of  surface  tillage,  a  good  crop 
may  be  impossible,  even  though  the  subsequent  tillage  is 
perfect.  The  land  should  also  contain  sufficient  humus 
or  vegetable  matter  to  hold  a  good  supply  of  moisture. 
It  is  ordinarily  best  to  have  the  plants  so  vigorous  that 
several  fruits  set  simultaneously.  If  one  fruit  sets  two 
or  three  weeks  in  advance  of  the  others,  it  is  likely  to 
consume  so  much  of  the  energy  of  the  vine  that  the  sub- 
sequent fruits  remain  small.  In  fact,  it  may  be  well  to 


414         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

pick  off  the  first  fruit  if  it  sets  much  in  advance  of  the 
main  crop.  Although  the  land  should  be  rich,  the  fer- 
tility should  be  available  early  in  the  season  rather  than 
late,  else  the  growth  may  be  delayed  too  long.  Lands 
that  are  very  rich  in  nitrogenous  materials  may  cause 
the  plants  to  grow  to  vine  at  the  expense  of  fruit.  If 
there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  for  the  plants  to  go  to  vine, 
it  is  a  good  practice  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  leading 
shoots.  Usually,  however,  this  practice  is  not  necessary 
unless  the  season  is  very  short. 

Since  the  fruits  of  cucumbers  are  used  when  they  are 
young,  the  productivity  of  the  plants  may  be  greatly 
enhanced  by  picking  the  fruits  as  soon  as  they  are  fit. 
The  patch  should  be  gone  over  every  two  or  three  days 
at  least,  and  if  the  area  is  large,  it  should  be  picked  over 
every  day.  If  one  fruit  is  allowed  to  ripen  it  may  pre- 
vent the  setting  of  other  fruits  on  the  vine.  If  seeds  of 
cucumbers  are  desired,  it  is  best  to  reserve  a  few  hills 
especially  for  that  purpose.  Cucumbers  for  the  main  or 
pickling  crop  are  usually  grown  from  seeds  planted 
directly  in  the  fields  as  soon  as  frost  is  past. 


CUCUMBER    AND    GHERKIN 

Hills  of  cucumber  are  usually  made  about  4x4  or  4x5  feet 
apart;  sometimes  they  are  4x6,  for  the  large  late  varieties.  At 
4x4  feet,  2,722  hills  are  contained  on  an  acre.  Four  or  five  plants 
are  allowed  to  remain  in  each  hill.  About  two  pounds  of  seeds  are 
calculated  to  plant  an  acre,  or  1  ounce  for  70-80  hills.  If  the 
striped  bugs  are  bad,  plant  heavily.  An  average  acre  should  yield 
100  bushels  for  pickling.  Under  the  best  conditions,  400  and  500 
bushels  of  pickling  cucumbers  are  raised  to  the  acre. 


Cucumber  Notes 


415 


For  very  early,  some  of  the  small -fruited  cucumbers  may  be 
planted,  as  Early  -Russian.  For  midseason  and  late,  the  White 
Spine,  in  various  strains,  is  the  standard.  Giant  Pera,  Nichol 
Medium  Green  and  Tailby  are  favorites.  In  1889,  64  varieties 
were  listed  by  American  seedsmen. 

The  cucumber  is  Cucumis  sativus,  native  to  southern  Asia.  It 
has  been  in  cultivation  from  remotest  times.  Gherkins  are  very 


Fig  131.    Seedlings  of  cucumber.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

small,  immature  cucumbers,  used  for  pickles.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  the  small  prickly  fruits  of  Cucumis  Anguria,  a  species 
known  as  the  West  Indian  or  Bur  cucumber.  This  is  sometimes 
cultivated,  and  its  fruits  are  used  for  pickles.  For  accessible  his- 
tory of  cucumber,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Oct.,  1887,  pp. 
906-910.  A  monograph  of  varieties  by  Goff  will  be  found  in  6th 
Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.,  pp.  230-242.  The  varieties  were 
reduced  to  26,  including  Cucumis  Anguria.  He  divides  them  into 
two  classes:  young  fruit  green,  young  fruit  white  or  greenish 
white.  Waugh  (Bailey,  Cyclo.  Hort.)  divides  the  field  varieties 
into  Black  Spines  and  White  Spines,  and  makes  subdivisions 
under  each. 

For  enemies  and  diseases,  consult  the  following,  amongst 
others : 

Root  and  stem:  Squash  vine  borer,  N.  J.  Bull.  94,  desc.  and 
ill.;  N.  Y.  Bull.  75,  desc,  and  well  ill.  Destroy  eggs, 
larvre  and  moths. 


416         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

Leaves:   Flea  beetle,  N.   Y.,  Bull.   113,   good  ill.  and  desc. 

Thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  throughout  season. 
Striped  beetle,  N.  J.  Bull.  94;  N.  Y.  Bull.  75,  desc.  and  illus. ; 
N.  Y.  Bull.  158,  desc.  of  remedies  ;  remedies;  Ga.  Bull. 
45,  insects.  Plant  squash  as  a  trap  crop,  and  poison  the 
beetles  on  the  squash  vines.  The  poison  is  likely  to  in- 
jure the  vines;  so  plant  the  squashes  profusely  and  do  not 
poison  all  of  them  at  once.  Poison  with  Paris  green  and 
lime.  Spray  the  cucumber  vines  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
The  hills  may  be  covered  with  mosquito  netting,  held 
above  the  plants  by  means  of  hoops,  until  the  plants  begin 
to  show  signs  of  running. 

Downy  mildew  or  blight,  N.  Y.  Bull.  156.     Ohio  Bull.  105. 
Spray  thoroughly  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 


MUSKMELON 

Four  by  six  feet  is  a  customary  distance  for  the  hills  of  musk- 
melons,  making  1,185  hills  to  the  acre.  The  quantity  of  seed  required 
is  about  the  same  as  for  cucumber.  Sometimes  two  crops  are  grown 
on  the  same  land,  a  very  early  and  a  main-season  crop.  The  early 
crop  is  planted  4x5  feet,  and  two  or  three  weeks  later  the  main 
crop  is  planted  between.  Three  or  four  good  fruits  to  the  plant  is 
a  good  yield. 

American  seedsmen  offered  88  varieties  of  muskmelon  in  1889. 
Leading  commercial  varieties  at  present  are  Rocky  Ford,  Osage, 
(Fig.  38),  Montreal  Market,  Hackensack.  Commercial  melon- 
growing  is  confined  to  light  and  sandy  soils.  New  Jersey  is  an 
important  melon  center.  There  are  special  melon  centers  in  many 
parts  of  the  country,  even  as  far  north  as  Canada. 

Cucumis  Melo,  muskmelon,  is  native  to  southern  Asia.  It  was 
grown  by  the  ancients.  It  is  immensely  variable.  The  most  im- 
portant types  are  the  cantaloupes  (var.  Cantalupensis) ,  with  hard 
and  warty  rinds,  little  grown  in  this  country,  although  the  word 
cantaloupe  is  much  used;  the  nutmeg  or  netted  type  (var.  reticu- 
latus)  comprising  most  of  the  American  commercial  varieties; 


Melons 


417 


the  winter  melons  (var.  inodorus)  ripening  late  in  the  season  and 
keeping  well  into  the  winter,  little  known  in  this  country.  Consult 
Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Aug.  1889,  pp.  671-4,  for  history.  The 


Fig.  132.    Muskmelon  seedlings.    Nearly  natural  size. 

notion  that  muskmelons  are  contaminated  by  cucumbers  that  grow 
near  them  is  an  error. 

For  melon  diseases  and  insects,  see  Cucumber.  For  the 
anthracnose,  consult  Dept.  Agric.  Botanical  Division,  Bull.  8,  p. 
64;  Md.  1891  Kept.,  p.  387. 


WATERMELON 

The  first  requisite  in  watermelon  culture  is  a  location  with  suf- 
ficient length  of  season  to  insure  maturity  of  crop. 

"Rotation  is  all -important.  In  no  case  should  melons  follow 
melons  the  next  season,  and  at  least  four  years  should  intervene 
before  the  land  is  again  planted  in  this  crop.  By  that  time  insect 
depredators,  attracted  by  the  first  melon  crop,  will  have  probably 
become  exterminated  and  the  drain  from  the  soil  of  specific  plant- 
food  (especially  potash)  will  also  have  been,  to  a  certain  extent, 
at  least,  made  good."— Hugh  N.  Starnes,  Bull.  38,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta., 
on  "Watermelons." 

The  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states  have  occupied  first  place 
for  size  and  quality  of  melons.  Recently,  the  mid -continental 

AA 


418         The    Principles  of   Vegetable -Gardening 

states  are  coming  to  the  fore.  The  ideal  soil  is  light  sandy  loam 
with  only  a  medium  or  small  amount  of  nitrogen.  Much  nitrogen 
is  thought  to  diminish  the  essential  saccharine  constituent.  A 
point  of  special  emphasis  is  that  of  thorough  drainage.  Swampy  or 
"soggy"  land  will  not  produce  favorable  results.  In  the  South  the 
field  for  melons  is  often  plowed  in  the  fall,  to  expose  the  soil  to 
the  pulverizing  action  of  frost.  Watermelons  are  always  planted 
in  hills,  which  are  usually  10  feet  apart  each  way.  The  hills  are 
made  at  the  intersection  of  check-rows.  This  "checking"  is 


Fig.  133.    Watermelon  seedlings.    One-half  natural  size. 

usually  done  with  shovel-  or  turn-plow.  The  hills  are  made  by 
mixing  several  shovelfuls  of  well-rotted  manure  with  soil  and  then 
covering  the  whole  with  several  inches  of  soft  earth,  into  which 
the  seeds  are  planted  directly.  All  danger  of  frosts  should  be  over 
before  planting.  Avoid  baking  or  crusting  of  the  soil  on  the  hills, 
especially  before  germination  of  seeds.  Only  hand  tools  should 
be  used  in  the  cultivation  of  crop  after  the  vines  have  begun  to 
run,  as  lifting  or  turning  the  vines  will  injure  quality  and  size  of 
fruit.  At  10x10  feet,  435  hills  are  contained  in  an  acre.  About 
4  pounds  of  seed  is  used  to  the  acre. 

When  is  a  watermelon  ripe?  —  "Unquestionably  the  fiat,  dead 
sound  emitted  by  a  melon  when  'thumped'  is  the  readiest  indi- 
cation of  ripeness,  and  the  one  most  universally  depended  on. 


Watermelon  Notes  419 

If  the  resonance  is  hollow,  ringing  or  musical,  it  is  a  certain  proof 
of  immaturity. 

"Frequently  on  turning  the  melon  and  exposing  the  under 
side,  the  irregular  white  blotch  formed  where  the  melon  has  rested 
on  the  ground  affords  an  indication  of  maturity.  When  this  begins 
to  turn  yellowish  and  becomes  rough,  pimply  or  warty,  with  the 
surface  sufficiently  hard  to  resist  the  finger-nail  when  scratched, 
it  is  usually  a  fair  sign  of  ripeness. 

"But  there  is  one  more  test  that  is  corroborative.  After  the 
melon  'looks'  ripe  and  'thumps'  ripe,  if,  on  a  steady  pressure 
of  the  upper  side  or  '  top '  by  the  palm  of  the  hand,  while  the 
melon  lies  on  the  ground,  instead  of  resisting  solidly  the  interior 
appears  to  have  a  tendency  to  yield  —  a  '  givey  '  sort  of  feeling,  as 
it  Were  —  accompanied  by  a  crisp  crackling,  half  heard,  half  felt, 
as  the  flesh  parts  longitudinally  in  sections  under  the  pressure^ 
the  melon  may  be  pulled  with  absolute  confidence.  It  is  certainly 
ripe.  This  test  should  never  be  resorted  to  with  melons  intended 
for  shipment,  as  their  carrying  quality  is  necessarily  impaired 
thereby. 

"Yet  all  this,  as  stated,  comes  largely  by  instinct  to  the  expert, 
and  it  is  rarely  that  one  finds  it  necessary  to  'thump,'  much  less 
to  '  press/  a  melon  before  deciding  as  to  its  maturity." — Hugh  N. 
Starnes,  Bull.  38,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta. 

Fifty -eight  varieties  of  watermelons  were  catalogued  by  North 
American  seedsmen  in  1889.  Only  a  few  of  these  are  commercial 
varieties,  and  the  kinds  that  are  popular  in  the  South  require  a  too 
long  season  for  the  North.  Only  in  favored  places  are  watermelons 
grown  in  the  northernmost  states.  They  are  more  uncertain  than 
muskmelons,  because  of  the  short  and  cool  seasons,  and  are  less 
grown  in  the  North.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties,  however, 
that  ripen  without  difficulty  in  the  northern  states  and  Ontario 
when  a  warm  soil  and  exposure  are  at  hand  and  where  small  boys 
are  absent.  The  plants  may  be  started  under  glass,  as  advised 
on  p.  413. 

The  watermelon  is  Citrullus  vulgaris,  native  to  Africa.  It  has 
been  in  cultivation  from  a  remote  period.  It  is  more  popular  in 
North  America,  probably,  than  elsewhere  in  the  world.  In  fact, 


420         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

it  is  a  feature  of  American  living.  The  vegetable  known  as  citron 
is  only  a  kind  of  watermelon  with  hard,  inedible  flesh.  The  rind 
is  used  for  preserving.  The  true  citron  of  commerce  is  the  fruit 
of  a  tree  allied  to  orange  and  lemon. 

For  insects  and  diseases,  see  Cucumber. 


PUMPKIN   AND   SQUASH 

When  grown  by  themselves,  pumpkins  and  field  squashes  are 
planted  in  hills  8  to  10  feet  apart.  About  3  pounds  of  seed  is 
required  for  an  acre  with  the  field  or  running  varieties.  Two  or 
three  mature  fruits  to  a  vine  is  a  large  crop. 

The  bush  squashes  are  grown  as  close  as  3x4  feet  in  gardens, 
but  the  hills  should  be  4  or  5  feet  apart  if  possible.  From  4  to  5 
pounds  of  seed  is  required  to  the  acre. 

In  pumpkins,  as  the  term  is  understood  in  this  country,  the 


Fig.  134.    Seedlings  of  squash.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

standard  variety  is  the  Connecticut  Field.  It  is  a  long-running 
plant.  The  large  orange-colored  sleek  furrowed  fruits  are  used  for 
pies,  and  to  feed  stock;  and  the  small  boy  prizes  them  for  "jack 
lanterns."  It  is  commonly  grown  in  corn-fields.  This  plant  is  a 


Pumpkins    and    tiynashets 


421 


form  of  Cucurbita  Pepo.     Fig.  135.     The  vegetable  marrow,  much 
prized  in  England,  is  a  long- fruited  form  of  this  species. 

Of  field  or  winter  squashes  the  leading  types  are  the  Hub- 
bard,  Marblehead,  Boston  Marrow,  Essex  Hybrid,  Turban.  These 
are  kept  for  winter.  They  should  have  a  dry  and  fairly  warm 
place  (temperature  above  50°).  Where  they  are  grown  extensively, 


Fig.  135.    A  Pumpkin— Cucurbita  Pepo. 

special  stove-heated  houses  are  built  for  them  and  they  are 
stored  on  shelves  or  in  shallow  bins.  In  order  to  keep  well,  the 
fruits  must  be  ripe,  free  from  bruises  and  internal  cracks,  not 
frosted,  and  have  the  stem  on.  These  squashes  are  Cucurbita 
maxima. 

The  bush  squashes  are  of  many  kinds.  They  are  "summer 
squashes."  The  leading  types  are  Crookneck,  and  Scallop  or 
Patty-pan.  These  are  forms  of  Curcurbita  Pepo. 

Cucurbita  Pepo  and  C.  maxima  do  not  cross,  although  the 
common  notion  is  to  the  contrary. 

A  third    specific  type  is  Cucurbita  moschata,  to  which  belong 


422         The  Principles   of    Vegetable -Gardening 

the  Cushaws  or  Winter   Crooknecks,    Dunkard,  Tennessee  Sweet 
Potato  pumpkin,  and  some  others. 

It  is  now  believed  that  Cucurbita  Pepo  and  C.  maxima  are 
natives  of  tropical  America,  although  they  are  unknown  anywhere 
in  a  truly  wild  state.  C.  moschata  may  be  east-Asian.  See  Gray 
and  Trumbull,  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.  25,  p.  372;  Sturtevant,  Amer. 
Nat.,  July,  1885,  pp.  658-663,  and  Aug.,  1890,  pp.  727-744;  Witt- 
mack,  Berichte  der  Deutsehen  Bot.  Gesell.,  6,  p.  378.  For  de- 
scriptions of  varieties,  see  Goff,  6th  Rep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta., 
pp.  243-273;  55  varieties  of  squashes  and  pumpkins  are  described. 
For  insects  and  diseases,  see: 

Squash  bug,  N.  J.  Bull.  94;  N.  Y.  Bull.  75,  very  good  desc. 
and  ill. ;  Fla.  Bull.  34.  Keep  fields  free  from  rubbish. 
Trap  with  bits  of  squash  leaves,  etc.  Examine  daily. 
In  early  spring  pick  old  bugs. 

Melon  louse,  N.  Y.  Bull.  75  ;  N.  J.  Bull.  94,  good,  with  ill. ; 
Ky.  Bull.  53;   Use  bisulfide  carbon,  or  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas:  Get  at  winter  quarters.    Check  first  appearance. 
Powdery  mildew,  Mass.  State  Rept.  1892,  p.  225,  with  plate; 
Cornell  Bull.  3.1;  Cornell:  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate. 
Downy  mildew,  Mass.  State  Rept.   1890,  p.  211,  with  plate; 
N.  Y.  Bull.  119,  excellent;  N.  Y. :  Bordeaux  (1  to  8  for- 
mula) once  every  8  or  10  days  to  frost. 

OTHER   CUCURBITS 

Various  other  cucurbitous  fruits  are  grown  for  eating.  Of 
late  years,  Benincasa  cerifera,  the  wax  gourd  of  the  Orient,  has 
been  introduced  as  the  Chinese  preserving  melon.  It  is  used  for 
the  making  of  preserves  and  sweet  pickles.  The  fruit  is  the  size 
of  a  watermelon,  hairy,  and  usually  having  a  waxy  covering. 
Cultivation  as  for  muskmelon.  See  Cornell  Bull.  67. 

The  Dish-Cloth  gourds  or  Vegetable  Sponges,  two  species  of 
Luffa,  are  in  cultivation  as  curiosities  and  for  the  fibrous  interior, 
which  is  used,  when  dried  and  macerated,  as  a  sponge.  The 
young  fruit  may  be  eaten  when  cooked  or  dried,  but  it  is  scarcely 
known  as  a  kitchen -garden  product  in  this  country. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

SWEET   CORN.     ORE  A.     MAETYNIA 

THE  plants  mentioned  above  are  all  warm- weather 
crops  ;  they  are  annuals,  or  grown  as  such,  and  they  are 
cultivated  for  their  immature  fruits;  they  should  have 
quick  soil  ;  usually  they  are  not  transplanted  ;  other  than 
good  tillage,  no  special  treatment  is  required. 

Corn,  okra  and  martynia  are  culturally  somewhat 
related,  but  they  have  little  else  in  common.  They  are 
placed  together  here  because  none  of  them  fits  well  into 
the  other  groups. 

SWEET   CORN 

As  a  garden  or  horticultural  crop,  sweet  corn  or 
sugar  corn  is  the  only  kind  of  corn  that  need  be  con- 
sidered here.  It  is  grown  for  the  immature  ears,  which 
are  eaten  when  the  grains  are  yet  soft.  Although  prac- 
tically unknown  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  it  is  a 
very  important  product  in  North  America.  Its  import- 
ance has  greatly  increased  in  recent  years  because  it  is 
extensively  canned.  It  is  now  one  of  the  most  important 
of  horticultural  field  crops  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 
Sweet  corn  is  not  grown  in  the  southern  states;  or  if  it 
is,  the  seed  is  renewed  every  year  from  the  North.  It 
holds  its  peculiar  attributes  only  in  the  short,  sharp 
seasons  of  the  northern  states  and  parts  of  Canada. 

(423) 


424         The    Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

The  cultivation  of  sweet  corn  is  not  unlike  that  of 
field  corn,  with  the  exception  that  greater  attention  is 
paid  to  earliness  and  to  the  development  of  each  indi- 
vidual plant.  It  is  therefore  given,  if  possible,  an 
earlier  and  warmer  soil,  with  quickly  available  fertil- 
izers, and  it  is  usually  grown  in  hills  rather  than  in 


Fig.  136.    Sweet  corn  seedlings.    Nearly  natural  size. 

continuous  drills.  The  idea  is  to  secure  as  many  ears 
as  possible,  and  therefore  each  stalk  should  be  given  an 
abundance  of  room.  In  field  corn,  on  the  contrary, 
particularly  since  the  advent  of  the  silo,  the  fodder  may 
be  quite  as  important  as  the  grain.  If  the  season  is 
short  and  the  soil  is  hard  and  backward,  it  is  well  to  add 
a  little  commercial  fertilizer  to  each  hill  in  order  to  start 
the  plants  off  quickly.  Seed  is  planted  for  the  early 
crop  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  thoroughly  warm.  Since 


Sweet    Corn 


425 


sweet  corn  seed  is  particular! y  liable  to  rot  in  cold  and 
damp  ground,  it  is  well  to  make  the  first  planting  rather 
heavy.  It  is  never  transplanted.  The  early  plantings 
are  usually  made  of  the  extra -early 
varieties,  as  the  Early  Minnesota,  Early 
Vermont  and  others.  The  main  crop  is 
usually  secured  from  the  later  or  main- 
season  varieties,  of  which  the  Stowell 
.Evergreen  is  the  standard.  Succes- 
sional  plantings  may  be  made  at  inter- 
vals of  one  to  two  weeks,  particularly 
for  the  home  garden  or  for  a  contin- 
uous supply  for  the  market -garden.  In 
market  -  gardening,  the  value  of  the 
green -corn  crop  is  often  determined  by 
its  earliness.  Two  or  three  days  in  time 
of  ripening  may  make  a  difference  be- 
tween the  profitable  and  unprofitable 
crop,  particularly  when  one  is  under 
strong  competition  with  neighboring 
gardeners.  In  such  cases  the  grower 
secures  the  early  crop  by  means  of  the 
very  earliest  varieties  and  particularly 
by  having  quick  and  well -prepared  land 
to  which  only  quickty  available  fertilizers  have  been 
added.  If  the  land  is  inclined  to  be  hard  and  rough, 
it  is  well  to  turn  it  up  loose  in  the  fall. 

Although  corn  is  a  hot- weather  plant  and  thrives  in 
the  fullest  exposure  to  sunlight,  it  nevertheless  is  not 
able  to  withstand  drought  as  well  as  potatoes  and  many 
other  crops.  This  is  because  it  is  relatively  a  surface 


Fig.  137.    Plant  of 
sweet  corn. 


426         The   Principles    of    Vegetable -Gardening 

feeder.  Every  effort  should  be  made,  therefore,  to  pre- 
serve the  moisture  in  the  soil.  The  moisture  content 
is  increased  by  deep  preparation  of  the  land  and  by 
the  incorporation  of  vegetable  matter.  Thereafter  the 
moisture  is  saved  by  frequent  light  surface  tillage. 

In  the  general  market,  corn  is  nearly  always  retailed 
by  the  dozen  ears,  the  price  ranging  from  25  cents  a 
dozen  early  in  the  season  down  to  10  and  even  5  cents 
when  the  main  supply  comes  in.  As  a  field  crop  for  the 
canning  factories,  the  ears  are  ordinarily  sold  by  the 
ton,  8  to  12  dollars  being  an  average  price  for  that  quan- 
tity after  all  small  and  imperfect  ears  are  discarded  and 
some  allowance  is  made  for  extra  husks.  The  ears  of 
the  second  setting  will  develop  better  if  those  of  the  first 
setting  are  picked  just  as  soon  as  they  are  fit  for  use. 

Rows  of  corn  are  made  at  3-4  feet  apart.  In  the  row  the  hills 
(of  3-5  stalks  each)  are  planted  at  2/^-3  feet  apart,  or  single  ker- 
nels may  be  dropped  every  ten  to  twelve  inches.  At  2%-3  feet 
apart,  the  crop  may  be  tilled  in  both  directions.  When  the  corn 
is  small,  the  ground  may  be  harrowed  without  destroying  the 
plants.  In  hills,  one  peck  to  the  acre  is  required  for  planting. 
8,000  to  10,000  ears  should  be  secured  from  an  acre. 

Sweet  corn  is  a  race  or  variety  of  common  Indian  corn,  or  Zea 
Mays,  one  of  the  grass  family,  and  a  native  of  America,  although 
the  wild  type  is  unknown.  For  a  general  botanical  and  horticul- 
tural account  of"  corn,  see  "Varieties  of  Corn,"  Bull.  57,  Office  of 
Exp.  Stations  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.),  by  the  late  E.  L.  Sturtevant 
(1899).  For  history  of  sweet  corn,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat., 
July  1885,  pp.  664-5.  In  1889,  American  seedsmen  listed  76  varie- 
ties of  sweet  corn  and  22  varieties  of  pop  corn. 

For  insects  and  diseases,  see,  amongst  others,  the  following: 

Wire-worms,  Cornell  Bull.  107,  desc.  and  ill.  Fall  cultivation. 
Short  rotation,  including  thorough  cultivation  in  fall. 


Okra 


427 


Cut-worms,  Cornell  Bull.  104,  desc.  and  ill. 

Chinch-bug,  Ky.  Bull.  74,  desc.  and  ill.;  N.  Y.  Kept.  15, 
pp.  531-33,  desc.;  Ohio  Bull.  69,  desc.  and  ill.,  very 
good  ;  Ohio:  Ditching,  plowing,  harrowing,  etc.  Natural 
checks,  rain  and  fungi. 

Cornstalk  disease,  Neb.  Bull.  52. 


OKRA    OR    GUMBO 

Okra  is  a  hot -weather  perennial,  but  is  cultivated  as 
an  annual;  the  seeds  being  sown  each  spring.  It  is  gen- 
erally grown  in  the  southern  states,  where  its  partially 
matured  pods  are  in  much  demand  for  soups  and  stews. 
These  pods  must  be  cut  when  still  tender  and  pulpy,  be- 
fore they  have  developed  strings  or  woody  fiber.  Pods 


• 

Fig.  138.    Okra  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

are  also  canned  and  dried  for  subsequent  use.  Okra  is 
grown  in  essentially  the  same  way  as  corn.  The  seeds  are 
sown  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  as  the  young  plants 
do  not  transplant  with  ease.  In  the  Northern  states, 
however,  the  plants  are  sometimes  started  in  pots,  boxes 


428          The    Principles    of    Vegetable  -  Gardening 

or  on  inverted  sods  in  frames.  Okra  is  a  large  -  growing 
plant  and  the  rows  should  be  from  3  to  4,  or  even  5,  feet 
apart  for  the  larger  varieties.  In  the  row  the  plants 
should  stand  from  1  to  3  feet.  In  the  northern  states, 
certain  dwarf  and  early -maturing  varieties  are  usually 
grown,  and  these  may  stand  as  close  as  1  foot  apart  in 
the  row. 

Hibiscus  esculentus,  the  okra,  is  native  to  tropical 
Asia.  It  is  one  of  the  Mallow  family,  and  is  therefore 
allied  to  hollyhock  and  cotton.  It  is  now  widely  grown 
in  tropical  countries.  For  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer. 
Nat.,  Jan.,  1890,  pp.  33-35.  There  are  no  very  im- 
portant insects  or  diseases.  There  are  few  varieties, 
only  11  being  offered  in  North  America  in  1889. 

MARTYNIA 

Martynia  is  grown  for  the  half -matured  seed -pods, 
which  are  used  for  pickles.  The  plant  requires  a  warm 
soil  and  exposure.  Give  much  room,  for  a  good  plant 
will  spread  over  an  area  3  or  4  feet  across.  It  is  a  nearly 
prostrate  plant,  with  very  large,  hairy  leaves,  odd  showy 
flowers,  and  long -beaked  hairy  pods.  It  demands  no 
special  treatment.  Seeds  may  be  started  in  frames  or 
planted  in  the  open  as  soon  as  warm  weather  comes. 

Two  or  three  confused  species  are  in  cultivation,  but 
the  commonest  one  is  Martynia  proboscidea,  native  from 
southern  Indiana  to  Iowa  and  southward.  Others  are 
tropical.  They  are  annuals.  They  are  members  of  the 
Pedaliacece,  a  small  family  allied  to  the  Bignonia  family. 
See  historical  note  by  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Aug., 
1889,  p.  670. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

CONDIMENTAL  AND  SWEET  HERBS 

ALTHOUGH  there  is  little  desire  on  the  part  of  Ameri- 
cans for  condimental  and  flavoring  herbs,  nevertheless 
every  complete  home  garden  should  have  a  small  area 
set  aside  for  the  cultivation  of  at  least  a  half  dozen  of 
the  leading  kinds.  What  are  commonly  known  as 
"herbs"  in  the  trade  comprise  a  great  variety  of  plants. 
Some  of  them  are  grown  for  medicinal  purposes,  some 
for  flavoring,  some  for  the  decoration  of  culinary  dishes 
and  others  for  salads  and  minor  home  uses.  What  are 
commonly  known  as  "the  sweet  herbs,"  however,  are 
such  plants  as  are  used  as  an  incident  to  cookery.  Of 
these  the  most  popular  in  America  is  sage. 

Nearly  all  the  sweet  herbs  are  of  the  easiest  culti- 
vation. They  thrive  in  any  loose,  warm  and  open  soil. 
Although  the  growth  is  usually  most  profuse  in  rather 
heavy  and  moist  soils,  it  is  believed  that  the  aromatic 
qualities,  for  which  they  are  particularly  esteemed,  ,are 
more  pronounced  in  soils  in  which  the  plants  do  not 
make  an  exuberant  growth.  The  land  should  always 
be  rich  enough,  however,  to  produce  a  full  development 
of  the  plant. 

The  sweet  herbs  are  of  two  general  classes  as  respects 
the  general  methods  of  cultivation:  the  annuals,  or  those 
that  must  be  resown  every  year;  and  the  perennials,  or 

(429) 


430         The   Principles   of   Vegetable -Gardening 

those  that  persist  for  a  number  of  years.  It  is  well  to 
grow  all  the  sweet  herbs  together  on  one  side  of  the  gar- 
den, whether  .they  are  annual  or  perennial.  It  is  advis- 
able to  devote  a  strip  of  land  to  this  purpose  and  to  grow 
a  clump  of  a  particular  herb  each  year  in  its  accustomed 
place.  Even  the  perennial  species,  as  sage  and  hyssop, 
should  be  resown  or  replanted  frequently  in  order  to  keep 
the  plants  in  vigorous  condition,  particularly  if  the  cli- 
mate is  severe  and  if  the  plants  are  not  given  some  win- 
ter protection.  The  grower  may  readily  save  his  own 
seed  by  cutting  off  a  few  plants  when  the  seeds  are 
nearly  ready  to  be  shed  and  hanging  the  plants  in  a  dry, 
cool  place,  as  in  a  barn. 

The  strongest -growing  perennial  species  may  be 
propagated  easily  by  division  of  the  roots.  When  the 
clump  begins  to  fail,  it  is  well  to  dig  it  up  and  discard 
all  the  older  parts  of  the  roots  and  to  replant  the 
younger  and  more  vigorous  parts.  When  such  species 
are  grown  from  seed,  they  are  usually  not  strong  enough 
to  supply  a  heavy  product  until  the  second  year, 
although  some  of  them  may  give  a  cutting  the  first  fall 
if  they  are  started  early  and  if  the  soil  is  good.  Ordi- 
narily a  space  4  feet  square  will  contain  enough  of  any 
herb  to  supply  a  family,  although  twice  that  area  may 
be  desired  for  such  popular  species  as  sage,  caraway  and 
spearmint.  A  strip  3  or  4  feet  wide  along  one  side  of  a 
garden  can  be  made  a  collecting -place  for  these  herbs; 
and  the  place  will  have  more  than  a  commercial  or 
culinary  interest. 

Some  of  the  sweet  herbs  are  prized  for  foliage,  and 
others  for  seeds  or  fruits.  In  fact,  the  species  to  which 


Sweet  Herbs  431 

the  name  sweet  herb  should  be  more  particularly  re- 
stricted, are  those  that  have  aromatic  foliage.  Of  such 
are  sage,  hyssop,  thyme,  mints,  tansy,  horehound. 
Most  of  these  plants  are  members  of  the  mint  family, 
or  Labiatae,  although  some  of  them,  as  tansy  and  worm- 
wood, are  members  of  the  sunflower  family.  Those 
species  of  which  the  seeds  are  used  are  mostly  members 
of  the  parsley  family,  or  Umbelliferae.  Of  such  are  cara- 
way, coriander  and  dill.  The  larger  number  of  these 
seed -bearing  plants  are  annual.  The  plants  that  are 
grown  for  herbage  are  usually  cut  when  the  plant  is  in 
full  growth  and  before  it  has  become  woody.  The  stems 
are  cut  off  near  the  ground  and  are  then  tied  together  in 
bundles  and  hung  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  as  an  attic.  The 
dried  herbage  is  then  in  condition  for  use  during  the 
winter.  Continual  cuttings  of  the  young  herbage  may 
also  be  made  during  the  season  for  current  uses.  It  is 
evident  that  if  the  plants  are  cut  severely  and  continu- 
ously they  will  be  weakened,  and  that  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  raise  a  fresh  stock  to  take  their  places.  The 
species  that  are  grown  for  seeds  are  allowed  to  ripen 
before  the  product  is  gathered.  The  plants  are  usually 
cut  or  pulled  just  before  the  seeds  are  ready  to  fall. 
The  plants  are  then  dried  under  cover  and  the  seeds  are 
threshed  out.  Seeds  of  the  seed-bearing  herbs  and 
dried  herbage  of  the  true  sweet  herbs  are  usually  to  be 
had  at  drug  stores,  but  there  is  much  satisfaction  in 
growing  one's  own.  Sometimes  there  is  a  fair  market 
for  home-grown  herbs. 

The  following  lists  contain   the  leading  species  of 
sweet  and   culinary  herbs    cultivated   in   this  country, 


432         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

arranged    with    reference    to    their   duration.       (Many 
other  plants  of  minor  importance  might  be  included: 


Annual  or  grown  as  such 


anise, 

sweet  basil, 
summer  savory, 
coriander, 


sage, 

lavender, 

peppermint, 

spearmint, 

hyssop, 

thyme, 

marjoram, 

balm, 

catnip, 

pennyroyal, 


caraway  (biennial) , 
clary  (biennial), 
dill  (biennial), 
sweet  marjoram  (biennial 
or  perennial). 


Perennial 


rosemary, 

horehound, 

fennel, 

lovage, 

winter  savory, 

tansy, 

wormwood, 

costmary, 

tarragon . 


CHAPTER   XX 

PERENNIAL    CROPS 

Asparagus,  Artichoke, 

Rhubarb,  Sea-Kale. 

Dock, 
Sorrel, 

THE  management  of  perennial  crops  differs  from 
that  of  other  vegetable -gardening  crops,  in  the  fact  that 
they  are  more  or  less  permanent  occupants  of  the  ground, 
and  therefore  must  "be  given  an  area  to  themselves  where 
they  will  not  interfere  with  the  customary  plowing  and 
tilling;  in  the  fact  that  the  chief  tillage  and  care  are 
required  early  and  late  in  the  season;  and  also  because 
the  fertilizing  is  secured  chiefly  by  surface  dressings  in 
spring  and  fall.  It  seems  to  be  advisable,  therefore, 
for  cultural  reasons,  to  place  these  vegetables  in  a 
group  by  themselves,  although  otherwise  they  have 
little  in  common.  All  cultural  classifications  are  more 
or  less  arbitrary. 

ASPARAGUS 

A  deep,  rich,  fertile,  moist,  cool  soil,  a  warm  exposure, 
thorough  preparation  of  the  land,  heavy  manuring, 
thorough  tillage  in  late  fall  and  early  spring,  are  general 
requisites  of  asparagus  culture.  The  plants  should  be 
allowed  to  become  well  established  before  a  crop  is  cut,  and 

BB  (433) 


434         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

the  cutting  of  the  plants  should  cease  in  early  summer  in 
order  to  allow  them  opportunity  to  grow  and  to  store  up 
energy  for  the  following  year.  The  tops  are  mown  in 
late  fall,  and  the  land  is  top-dressed  with  manure  before 
winter  sets  in.  Asparagus  is  grown  for  its  young  shoots, 
and  the  quality  is  determined  by  the  succulence  of  these 
shoots.  A  good  plantation  should  last  twenty  years  and 
more,  at  least  in  the  North.  Propagated  by  seed. 

Asparagus  is  a  gross  feeder.  Land  can  scarcely  be 
too  rich.  If  the  land  is  originally  hard  and  coarse,  it 
should  be  prepared  a  year  or  two  in  advance  by  the 
raising  of  some  thoroughly  tilled  crop,  as  potatoes,  and 
with  this  crop  as  much  manure  as  possible  should  have 
been  used.  The  asparagus  plantation  should  be  made 
for  a  lifetime.  Therefore  it  is  well  to  give  careful 
attention  to  the  selection  of  the  soil  and  to  the  choice  of 
a  place  that  can  be  permanently  set  aside  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  the  home  garden,  asparagus  should  be  in  rows 
at  one  side  of  the  plantation,  so  that  it  will  not  interfere 
with  the  plowing  of  the  garden  area.  It  usually  looks 
best  at  the  farther  side  of  the  garden,  where  its  beauti- 
ful herbage  makes  a  background  border  in  summer  and 
fall.  The  old  idea  was  to  have  asparagus '"  beds."  The 
new  idea  is  to  plant  asparagus  in  rows  as  one  would 
plant  rhubarb  or  corn,  and  to  till  it  with  horse  tools 
rather  than  with  hoes  and  finger  weeders.  For  the 
ordinary  family,  one  row  alongside  the  garden,  75  to 
100  feet  long,  may  be  expected  to  furnish  a  sufficient 
supply.  As  a  field  crop,  it  is  ordinarily  grown  in  the 
best  and  richest  soil  available.  The  permanency  of  the 
plantation  will  depend  largely  on  the  original  quality  of 


Asparagus 


435 


the  land,  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  the  method  of  plant- 
ing, and  particularly  on  the  subsequent  care  and  fertil- 
izing of  the  plantation.  Aim  to  secure  large,  broad 
crowns. 

The  roots  of  asparagus  should  be  in  moist,  cool  soil. 
They  should  have  opportunity  to  forage  as  far  as  they 


Fig.  139.     Seedlings  of  asparagus.    Natural  size. 

will.  The  roots  run  horizontally  rather  than  perpen- 
dicularly. It  is  well,  therefore,  to  place  the  rows  not 
closer  than  4  feet.  The  plants  should  be  set  deep.  The 
custom  is  to  subsoil  the  land,  if  it  is  hard  beneath  the 
surface,  plowing  in  a  heavy  coating  of  well -rotted 
manure  if  necessary.  The  plants  are  then  set  in  fur- 
rows 6  to  10  inches  deep.  The  crown  of  the  plant  is 
covered  with  loose  earth  or  old  compost  to  the  depth  of 
2  or  3  inches.  As  the  plants  grow,  the  trench  is 


436         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

gradually  filled.  If  the  trench  is  filled  at  first,  the 
young  plants  may  not  have  strength  enough  to  push 
through  the  earth.  In  a  commercial  plantation,  this 
filling  may  be  done  by  the  subsequent  tillage.  Some- 
times the  furrows  are  partially  filled  by  running  a  light 
harrow  over  the  ground.  The  plants  are  usually  set  in 
spring,  and  by  the  succeeding  fall  the  furrows  should 
have  been  filled.  The  plants  should  be  set  about  3  feet 
apart  in  the«row.  They  should  be  one-year-old  seed- 
lings. Two  or  three -year -old  plants  usually  give  less 
satisfactory  results. 

Since  "the  crowns  of  asparagus  are  so  far  beneath  the 
surface,  it  is  possible  to  till  the  whole  area  with  shallow- 
working  tools  late  in  fall  or  early  in  spring.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  this  general  tillage  be  given  in  order  to  keep  the 
plantation  free  of  weeds  and  to  maintain  the  physical 
texture  of  the  soil.  During  the  growing  season,  little 
tillage  can  be  given.  When  the  crop  is  being  harvested, 
it  is  not  practicable  to  till  to  any  extent;  and  later  in 
the  season  when  the  tops  are  allowed  to  grow,  the  whole 
surface  is  occupied.  It  is  well  to  dress  the  plantation 
heavily  in  the  fall  with  manure,  to  which  one  may  add 
night  soil,  refuse  salt  or  animal  fertilizer,  if  these  are 
available.  It  may  be  well,  also,  to  make  another  dress- 
ing of  more  quickly  available  fertilizer  early  in  the 
spring.  It  is  very  important  that  the  plantation  be 
given  the  best  of  surface  tillage  for  the  first  one  or  two 
years  in  order  to  get  it  into  ideal  condition.  When  the 
bed  finally  comes  into  full  bearing,  the  asparagus  appro- 
priates so  much  of  the  plant-food  and  moisture  that 
there  is  less  danger  from  pernicious  weeds. 


Asparagus  437 

The  plants  should  grow  two  full  years  before  shoots 
are  cut.  Sometimes  a  few  stalks  may  be  taken  the  sec- 
ond year,  but  it  is  usually  better  to  wait  until  the  third 
year  and  to  allow  the  plants  to  become  thoroughly  estab- 
lished. It  is  also  easy  to  injure  the  bed  by  cutting  it  for 
too  long  a  period  each  season.  Whilst  the  crop  is  being 
harvested,  however,  every  stalk  should  be  removed,  even 
though  it  is  too  small  and  poor  for  eating:  the  bed 
should  be  "cut  clean."  Only  in  rare  cases  should  the 
bed  be  cut  after  the  4th  of  July,  and  it  is  usually  better 
to  stop  before  this  time.  Thereafter  the  tops  are  allowed 
to  grow  as  they  will.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
energy  of  the  crown  and  roots  is  supplied  from  the  foli- 
age that  developed  in  the  previous  summer.  Without  a 
heavy  growth  of  top,  one  cannot  expect  a  good  growth 
of  roots  and  a  heavy  crop  the  following  year.  The  tops 
should  be  mown  late  in  fall.  Some  persons  allow  these 
tops  to  lie  on  the  ground  as  a  winter  protection.  If, 
however,  the  plants  produce  many  berries,  there  will  be 
so  many  seedling  plants  as  to  make  trouble;  in  that  case, 
it  is  better  to  burn  the  tops.  It  is  also  well  to  remove  and 
burn  them  in  order  to  allow  a  thorough  tillage  to  be  given 
in  the  fall.  The  bed  should  then  be  given  a  dressing  as 
already  advised,  both  for  the  purpose  of  affording  winter 
protection  and  to  supply  plant -food.  In  the  spring  the 
dressing  may  be  cultivated  under,  or  if  it  is  too  coarse 
for  that  purpose,  the  rougher  parts  may  be  forked  off. 
After  a  thorough  spring  cultivation,  it  is  well  to  again 
cover  the  bed  with  litter  or  manure  in  order  to  afford 
some  nourishment,  but  particularly  to  conserve  the  moist- 
ure and  to  afford  material  for  covering  the  tender  shoots 


438         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

in  case  there  is  danger  of  frost.  The  value  of  asparagus 
lies  in  its  succulence  and  tenderness,  and  these  qualities 
are  usually  associated  with  large  size  of  shoot.  These 
attributes  are  secured  by  very  rich  soil  and  by  thorough 
attention  to  good  tillage. 

It  is  customary  to  harvest  asparagus  by  cutting  off 
the  shoots  3  or  4  inches  beneath  the  surface  by  means 
of  a  long  knife.  There  are  special  asparagus  knives 
(Fig.  140),  but  any  long  'butcher -knife  will  answer  the 
purpose.  It  is  important  that  this  knife  be  inserted  in 
an  oblique  direction  so  as  not  to  injure  the  new  shoots 
which  are  rising  from  the  crown.  A  little  experience  in 
the  use  of  the  knife  will  enable  one  to  cut  the  shoots 
without  injury  to  the  succeeding  picking.  Some  of  the 
best  growers  now  advise  the  breaking  of  the  asparagus 
shoots  rather  than  cutting  them.  There  is  then  no  dan- 
ger of  injuring  the  crown,  and  the  shoot  will  not  break 
in  the  tough  and  stringy  part  and  therefore  the  product 
is  sure  to  be  tender  and  crisp.  This  is  no  doubt  the 
ideal  method,  but  the  formal  demands  of  the  market 
make  it  difficult  to  sell  broken  asparagus  in  some  places, 
notwithstanding  its  better  quality. 

In  this  country  asparagus  is  chiefly  used  in  its  green 
or  unblanched  state.  There  is  a  common  notion  that 
asparagus  with  white  stalks  is  the  tenderest  and  best, 
but  this  is  an  error  unless  the  stalks  are  artificially 
blanched.  When  grown  without  blanching,  the  green 
part  of  the  shoot  is  the  best.  Asparagus  is  often 
blanched  in  the  field.  This  is  done  by  hilling  up  the 
rows  early  in  spring  by  means  of  the  furrowing  plow, 
much  as  one  would  hill  celery.  If  asparagus  is  to  be 


Asparagus 


439 


grown  for  blanching,  it  should  be  planted  somewhat 
deeper  than  under  ordinary  conditions.  Blanched  as- 
paragus is  more  popular  in  the  Old  World  than  here. 

Asparagus  is  sold  in  bunches  4  or  5  inches  in  diam- 
eter.     These  are  tied  with  soft  cord  or  raffia, 
although  some  growers  now  use  rubber  bands. 
Usually  the  market  requires  that  the  butt  end 
of    the     bunch    be    cut    off 
square.     An  average   bunch 
is     7     to     9     inches     long. 
Asparagus   "bunchers" — 
which    are   forms    for   hold- 
ing the  bunch  and  cord,  and 
a  knife  for  cutting  the  butts 
— can  be  had  of  dealers  in 
gardeners'    supplies.       Fig. 
140. 

One  can  buy  asparagus  plants  of  seedsmen.  It  is 
usually  better,  however,  to  grow  one's  own  plants,  par- 
ticularly if  he  has  a  rich  piece  of  land  and  can  give  it 
careful  attention.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills  from  a  foot 
to  18  inches  apart  and  it  is  covered  about  an  inch  in 
depth.  The  seeds  may  be  soaked  in  warm  water  a  day 
before  planting.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  to  stand 
3  or  4  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Give  frequent  tillage 
throughout  the  season.  The  following  spring  these 
plants  will  be  ready  for  setting  in  their  permanent 
places.  Seedlings  may  be  expected  to  vary  consid- 
erably. 

At  3x4  feet,  3,630  plants  are  required  for  an  acre.  These 
plants  should  be  secured  from  1  pound  of  good  seed,  although  4-5 


Fig.  140.  Asparagus  buncher;  also 
knife  or  spud  for  cutting  the 
plants  in  the  field. 


440         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

pounds  is  often  recommended.     About  400  dozen  bunches  is  a  fair 
yield  per  acre. 

There  are  few  varieties.  Only  nine  were  listed  by  American 
seedsmen  in  1889.  Conover  Colossal  is  the  leading  kind. 

Asparagus  has  been  cultivated  for  2,000  years  or  more.  It  is 
native  to  temperate  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  one  of  the  lily  family, 
and  it  has  several  allies  in  cultivation  in  greenhouses  for  the 
graceful  foliage.  These  greenhouse  species  are  climbing  or 
drooping.  Asparagus  is  known  to  botanists  as  Asparagus  officinalis. 
For  an  accessible  history,  see  Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Feb.,  1887, 
pp.  129-131. 

"  If  I  can  have  a  trusty  hand  to  do  the  gathering,  I  do  not 
allow  a  knife  to  be  taken  into  the  field.  The  gatherer  takes  two 
rows  at  a  time,  breaking  off  the  shoots  just  beneath  the  ground,  at 
the  lowest  point  where  they  will  snap  squarely  off.  In  the  grow- 
ing season  the  field  is  gone  over  every  day.  Asparagus  should  be 
sold  by  weight,  like  lettuce  and  pie  plant ;  but,  unfortunately,  our 
retailers  have  not  as  yet  taken  this  progressive  step,  and  we  have 
asparagus,  not  only  of  all  grades  of  quality  in  the  market,  but 
bunches  of  all"  lengths  and  sizes.  Since  I  have  used  rubber  elas- 
tics instead  of  string  or  bark  for  tying,  the  process  of  bunch- 
ing has  been  greatly  abridged.  Five  dozen  bunches  can  be  put 
together  in  an  hour  by  an  expert  hand  and  neatly  squared  at  the 
ends. 

"  It  is  a  custom  among  many  of  our  gardeners,  by  the  use  of 
the  knife,  to  give  their  bunches  the  required  length  by  cutting  far 
beneath  the  surface,  lowering  the  quality  of  their  product  and 
demoralizing  the  market.  By  following  my  method  of  breaking  the 
stems,  there  is  no  waste  and  the  quality  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
stems  is  as  excellent  as  any  part  of  them.  The  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  of  careful  rules  for  cutting  asparagus  and  the  forms 
of  implements  best  fitted  for  the  purpose,  the  simplifying  of  the 
tying  process,  and  the  elimination  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
expense  in  preparing  the  field,  are  decidedly  important  steps  in 
progressive  asparagus  culture."  —  Ch as.  W.  Garfield  before  Mich. 
Hort,  Soc.,  July,  1889. 
.  The  leading  insects  and  diseases  are  discussed  in  the  following : 


Asparagus  —  Rhubarb  441 

Beetle,  N.  Y.  Bull.  75,  p.  425,  good  plate;  Dept.  Agric.  Yearb. 
1896,  p.  342,  good  ills. ;  N.  J.  Rept.  1898,  p.  457.  Destroy 
all  volunteer  asparagus.  In  beds  being  cut,  leave  small  trap- 
shoots  ;  twice  a  week  cut  these  and  destroy.  In  young  beds 
treat  with  fresh  air-slaked  lime  as  soon  as  larvae  appear; 
application  while  yet  damp ;  thoroughness.  In  hot  weather 
brush  off  and  insects  are  baked  on  soil.  In  rare  cases,  Paris 
green  or  London  purple,  1  Ib.  to  50  Ibs.  of  dry  hydrated  or 
air-slaked  lime;  second  application  a  week  later;  be  very 
careful  with  poisons  in  patches  from  which  asparagus  is  to 
be  used. 

Rust,  N.  J.  Kept.  1896,  p.  407;  Farmers'  Bull.  No.  61,  p.  30; 
Ct.  20th  Eept.,  p.  281  and  plates.  Mass.  Bull.  61:  Iowa 
Bull.  53.  The  cutting,  careful  collection  and  immediate 
burning,  not  only  of  all  visibly  affected  stalks  but  of  all 
asparagus  brush,  both  cultivated  and  wild,  early  in  the 
autumn.  Exercise  every  effort  to  secure  vigorous  plants, 
and  in  very  dry  seasons  practice  irrigation  if  possible. 


RHUBARB     OR     PIE     PLANT 

Rhubarb  delights  in  a  deep  rich  soil.  Since  its  value 
depends  on  the  succulence  and  size  of  the  leaf -stalks,  every 
care  must  be  given  that  will  contribute  to  leaf  groivth.  It 
is  an  early  spring  crop;  the  land,  therefore,  should  be 
quick,  and  the  plants  should  have  made  a  sturdy  growth 
the  previous  year  in  order  to  have  energy  to  start  quickly 
and  vigorously.  A  well-prepared  and  well-handled  rhu- 
barb plantation  should  last  twenty  years  or  more.  Pro- 
pagated by  divisions  of  the  root  or  by  seed. 

Rhubarb  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  all  perennial 
vegetable -garden  plants.  It  is  prized  for  its  large,  thick, 
juicy  acid  leaf -stalks,  which  are  used  in  early  spring  for 
sauces  and  pies.  The  size  of  the  stalks  depends  partly 


442         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

on  the  variety,  but  particularly  on  the  soil  and  the  tillage. 
There  are  only  three  or  four  popular  varieties,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  Victoria,  Linnasus,  and  Mammoth 
Red;  but  the  old-fashioned  rhubarb  will  often  produce 
a  better  leaf -stalk  when  given  high  cultivation  than  the 
best  strain  of  Victoria  will  when  grown  under  neglect. 
The  rhubarb  is  not  particular  as  to  soil,  but  it  thrives 
best  in  land  that  is  mellow  and  fertile  to  a  considerable 


Fig.  141.     Rhubarb  seedlings.     Two-thirds  natural 'size. 

depth.  Soils  that  have  a  high  subsoil  or  hard-pan  are 
to  be  avoided.  The  rhubarb  plantation  should  last  for 
a  number  of  years,  and  it  is  therefore  important  that 
the  original  preparation  of  the  land  should  be  of  the 
best.  Land  should  be  heavily  fertilized.  There  is  little 
danger  of  adding  too  much  stable  manure,  particularly 
if  the  soil  is  either  very  hard  or  very  loose.  If  the  land 
is  not  in  good  tilth,  it  is  best  to  grow  a  preparatory 
crop,  as  potatoes  or  some  root  crop,  and  to  use  lib- 
erally of  stable  manure  in  that  year.  If  the  land  is 


Rhubarb 


443 


not  naturally  deep,  it  is  well  to  subsoil  it  just  before  the 
rhubarb  is  planted.  The  rows  should  be  far  enough 
apart  to  allow  of  easy  horse  tillage, — not  less  than  four 
feet  for  the  strong -growing  varieties.  Fig.  142.  In  the 
row  the  plants  may  be  placed  from  3  to  4  feet  apart.  Good 
surface  tillage,  as  for  corn  or  potatoes,  is  all  that  is  de- 
manded. In  the  fall  the  bed  should  be  given  a  heavy 


Fig.  142. 


A  Long  Island  rhubarb  field  in  early  spring,  before  harvest 
has  begun. 


dressing  of  stable  manure.  This  dressing  serves  the 
purposes  of  enriching  the  soil,  of  preserving  the  texture 
of  the  surface,  and  of  affording  a  winter  mulch  and 
protection.  Lands  that  are  heavily  mulched  do  not 
freeze  so  deep  as  those  that  are  left  bare,  and  the  plants 
are  likely  to  start  earlier  in  the  spring.  This  surface 
mulch  may  be  removed  early  in  the  spring  and  a  thor- 
ough cultivation  given  to  the  land;  or  if  the  land  is  in 
good  tilth  and  free  from  weeds,  it  may  be  forked  from 


444         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

the  crowns  and  allowed  to  lie  between  the  rows  until  the 
crop  is  harvested.  Some  growers  hill  up  the  rows  in  fall 
by  means  of  a  plow  and  do  not  apply  a  fall  mulch. 

The  commercial  rhubarb  season  is  short.  It  rarely 
extends  over  more  than  two  months.  The  leaves  are 
pulled,  and  they  separate  readily  at  their  insertion. 
Only  the  largest  and  best  leaves  are  harvested.  Others 
are  usually  allowed  to  remain  unless  they  are  very  nu- 
merous, in  which  case  the  larger  part  of  them  are  pulled 
off  in  order  to  allow  the  strength  to  go  to  the  main  ones. 
After  the  market  season  of  rhubarb  is  past,  the  plants 
are  allowed  to  grow  as  they  will  except  that  the  seed- 
stalks  are  cut  off  as  fast  as  they  arise  in  order  to  force 
the  energy  of  the  plant  into  the  production  of  foliage 
and  roots.  A  heavy  crop  of  rhubarb  in  any  year  de- 
pends to  a  large  extent  on  the  strong  leaf -growth  of 
the  year  before.  In  order  to  renew  rhubarb  plantations, 
the  roots  are  sometimes  taken  up  and  reset;  but  it  is 
usually  a  better  practice  to  trim  the  roots  with  the  plow 
or  the  spade,  breaking  off  the  strong  projecting  parts. 

Ordinarily,  rhubarb  is  propagated  by  means  of  divi- 
sion of  the  roots.  The  root  may  be  cut  into  as  many 
pieces  as  there  are  strong  eyes,  and  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  root  is  allowed  to  remain  with  each  eye.  These 
pieces  are  planted  3  or  4  inches  deep.  The  plants  should 
grow  two  years  before  a  cutting  is  made,  and  they  will 
not  give  a  full  crop  until  the  third  year.  Rhubarb  is 
readily  grown  from  seeds,  but  this  requires  a  year's  more 
time  and  the  seedlings  are  likely  to  vary  to  some  extent. 
The  seeds  may  be  sown  early  in  the  spring  in  drills  18 
inches  apart,  or  closer  if  the  land  is  valuable,  and  the 


Rhubarb  —  Docks  445 

young  plants  are  thinned  to  6  to  8  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  The  plants  are  set  in  permanent  positions  the  year 
following,  that  is,  when  they  are  one  year  old.  In  the 
Northern  states  rhubarb  is  nearly  always  planted  in  the 
spring  whether  from  seedlings  or  root -cuttings,  but  in 
milder  climates  it  may  be  planted  in  the  fall. 

An  acre  of  rhubarb  requires,  about  as  much  seed  as  an  acre 
of  asparagus.  The  number  of  seeds  in  an  ounce  is  about  the 
same  as  in  asparagus.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  alleys  at  inter- 
vals in  a  rhubarb  field  to  allow  the  entrance  of  wagons.  From 
2  to  5  stalks  are  tied  in  a  bunch  for  market,  and  an  acre  should 
produce  3,000  dozen  bunches.  In  1889,  North  American  seeds- 
men offered  six  varieties  of  rhubarb.  Sometimes  used  for  wine. 

Rhubarb  (Rheum  Rhaponticum)  is  one  of  the  Polygonacese  or 
buckwheat  family.  It  is  native  to  eastern  Asia.  For  historical 
sketch  by  Sturtevant,  see  Amer.  Nat.,  April,  1890,  pp.  328-332. 

There  are  no  troublesome  insects  or  diseases. 

For  special  literature,  consult  Thompson's  "Rhubarb  Culture." 


DOCKS    AND    SORRELS 

"Various  species  of  docks  and  sorrels  have  long  been 
cultivated  as  pot-herbs.  Some  of  them  are  very  de- 
sirable additions  to  the  garden  because  they  yield 
a  pleasant  food  in  very  early  spring,  and,  once 
planted,  they  remain  for  years.  We  have  grown  two 
of  the  French  docks  for  years  and  find  them  to  be  very 
good.  One  is  the  Spinage  Dock  ( Oseille  Epinard) ,  the 
other  the  Large  Belleville  (Oseille  Large  de  Belleville). 
The  former  is  the  better  of  the  two,  perhaps,  and  it  has 
the  advantage  of  being  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier.  The 
broad  crisp  leaves  appear  early  in  April  when  there  is 


446         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

nothing  green  to  be  had  in  the  open  garden,  and  they, 
can  be  cut  continuously  for  a  month  or  more.  This 
dock  is  the  Herb  Patience,  or  Rumex  Patientia  of  the 
botanies.  It  has  long  been  an  inhabitant  of  gardens, 
and  it  has  sparingly  run  wild  in  some  parts  of  this 
country.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The  Belleville  is 
also  a  European  plant,  and  is  really  a  sorrel.  It  is 
Rumex  Acetosa  of  botanists.  It  has  also  become  spon- 
taneous in  some  of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  country. 
It  has  thinner,  lighter  green  and  longer -stalked  leaves 
than  the  spinage  dock,  with  spear-like  lobes  at  the  base. 
The  leaves  are  very  sour,  and  will  probably  not  prove  to 
be  so  generally  agreeable  as  those  of  the  spinage  dock; 
but  they  are  later,  and  afford  a  succession.  In  some 
countries  this  sorrel  yields  oxalic  acid  sufficient  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  Round -leaved  or  true  French 
sorrel  (Rumex  scutatus)  would  probably  be  preferable  to 
most  persons. 

"All  these  docks  are  hardy  perennials,  and  are  very 
acceptable  plants  to  those  who  are  fond  of  early 
'greens.'  Some,  at  least,  of  the  cultivated  docks  can 
be  procured  of  American  seedsmen." — Bull.  61,  Cornell 
Exp.  Sta. 

ARTICHOKE 

Two  very  unlike  plants  are  known  as  artichoke.  The 
one  commonly  known  under  that  name  in  this  country 
is  the  plant  known  abroad  as  Jerusalem  artichoke.  It  is 
one  of  the  sunflower  tribe  and  is  grown  for  its  thick, 
potato -like,  underground  tubers.  The  other,  or  the  true 
artichoke,  is  a  plant  allied  to  cardoon  and  thistles,  and 


Jerusalem   Artichoke 


•     447 


the  edible  part  is  the  large  unopened  flower -head;  the 
young  shoots  are  also  sometimes  blanched  and  eaten 
as  salads.  It  is  often  known  as  the  globe  or  bur  arti- 
choke. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  little  prized  in  this 
country  as  a  garden  vegetable,  although  it  is  so  exceed- 
ingly productive  and  thrives  under  such  adverse  condi- 
tions that  it  might  be  made  to  supply  a  considerable 


Fig.  143.    Globe  artichoke  seedlings.    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

amount  of  food.  The  tubers  may  be  eaten  raw  or 
cooked.  It  has  a  tendency  to  become  a  weed  in  waste 
places,  spreading  inveterately  by  means  of  its  long  un- 
derground, tuber-bearing  stems.  In  poorly  cultivated 
lands,  the  plant  is  likely  to  spread  rather  than  to 
diminish  because  the  tubers  are  severed  and  transported 
by  the  cultivator.  If  the  plant  becomes  a  weed,  it  may 
be  eradicated  by  thorough  tillage,  by  means  of  which 
the  tops  do  not  have  an  opportunity  to  grow.  If  the 
field  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  many  of  the  roots  will  be 
exposed  and  they  may  be  picked  out.  In  fact,  this  is 
one  of  the  best  means  of  harvesting  the  crop.  Swine 


448         The   Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

are  very  fond  of  the  artichoke,  and  if  they  are  turned 
into  the  field  they  will  soon  destroy  the  plant,  if  it 
becomes  weedy.  As  a  cultivated  crop,  the  artichoke  is 
nearly  always  placed  in  some  remote  or  little  used 
corner,  in  order  that  it  may  not  encroach  on  the  culti- 
vated areas.  When  once  planted,  it  will  take  care  of 
itself;  but  it  will  produce  more  freely  of  tubers  if  the 
roots  are  broken  and  divided  now  and  then,  as  they  are 
by  the  customary  digging  of  the  tubers.  The  plant  is 
perfectly  hardy.  It  is  native  to  the  northern  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  parts  of  Canada.  It  was  cul- 
tivated by  the  Indians  (see  Gray  &  Trumbull,  Amer. 
Journ.  Sci.  25,  p.  244).  In  the  Old  World  the  plant 
seems  to  be  more  prized  than  here  as  a  garden  crop,  and 
there  are  improved  strains  of  it.  In  this  country  there 
are  no  named  varieties  that  are  generally  known.  The 
plant  belongs  to  the  sunflower  genus,  being  known  to 
botanists  as  Helianthus  tuberosus. 

The  true  or  globe  artichoke  is  a  strong -growing,  up- 
right perennial,  with  large  woolly  divided  leaves.  The 
plants  grow  4  or  5  feet  high.  They  should  be  planted 
3  to  5  feet  apart  each  way.  The  plants  are  propagated 
either  by  seeds  or  by  suckers  from  the  root.  The  seeds 
do  not  reproduce  the  variety,  however,  and  are  therefore 
not  to  be  recommended  if  one  desires  the  best  strains. 
Seeds  may  be  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  and  the 
second  year  the  plants  may  be  expected  to  produce  edi- 
ble heads.  Seedlings  started  early  in  a  hotbed  may  give 
edible  heads  the  same  year,  but  they  must  be  transplanted 
with  much  care.  Suckers  are  freely  produced  about  the 
crown  of  the  plant,  and  these  are  chiefly  used  in  the  Old 


Artichoke  — Sea -Kale      .  449 

World  for  the  propagation  of  the  variety.  The  suckers 
are  usually  planted  directly  where  the  plants  are  to  ma- 
ture, and  in  the  second  year  the  heads  may  be  gathered. 
Usually  the  plant  begins  to  decline  after  it  has  borne  two 
or  three  heavy  crops.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  re- 
plant it  frequently.  In  cold  climates  the  crowns  should 
be  well  protected  in  winter  with  straw  or  litter.  The 
edible  parts  of  the  flower-head  are  the  fleshy  portion  on 
the  inside  of  the  large  outer  scales  and  the  "bottom"  or 
receptacle  of  the  head.  The  heads  are 
gathered  before  the  blue  flowers  begin  to 
show,  that  is,  when  the  head  is  in  the 
bud.  Fig.  141.  As  soon  as  the  head 
begins  to  expand,  it  is  too  old  and 
woody  for  eating.  In  this  country  the 
artichoke  is  little  prized,  but  it  is  much 
used  in  parts  of  Europe.  The  plant  is 
quite  worth  the  growing  as  an  orna- 
mental subject.  Figl44  Globearti. 
Cynara  Scolymus,  the  artichoke,  is  chokes.  One-fourth 
native  to  the  Mediterranean  region.  See  naturalsize- 
Sturtevant,  Amer.  Nat.,  Feb.,  1887,  p.  125.  For  notes  on 
culture  and  methods  of  cooking,  see  Circular  22,  Division 
of  Botany,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  (1899). 

SEA -KALE 

Sea -kale  is  a  low,  fleshy-stemmed  perennial,  the 
young  leaves  and  shoots  of  which  are  blanched  and 
eaten.  In  the  kitchen,  it  is  prepared  after  the  manner 
of  asparagus.  The  plant  is  little  known  in  this  country, 

cc 


450         The    Principles  of    Vegetable -Gardening 

although  it  is  deserving  of  popularity.  After  the  plants 
are  well  established,  the  young  shoots  are  blanched  by 
covering  the  crown  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more 
with  loose,  fine  earth  in  early  spring.  Sometimes 
the  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  upward  into  a  dark 
receptacle,  as  into  a  box  inverted  over  the  crown.  After 
the  early  spring  shoots  are  removed,  the  plant  is  allowed 
to  grow  as  it  will  for  the  remainder  of  the  season  for,  as 
in  asparagus  and  rhubarb,  the  vigor  of  the  young  shoots 
of  any  season  depend,  to  a  large  extent,  on  the  vigor 
and  energy  of  the  plant  in  the  preceding  year.  The 
soil  should  be  deep  and  rich,  and  rather  moist. 

Sea-kale  is  propagated  either  by  seeds  or  divisions 
of  the  roots.  In  either  case,  the  crop  is  not  to  be  har- 
vested until  the  plants  have  grown  two  or  three  years. 
If  the  root  divisions  are  large  and  the  soil  is  strong, 
some  shoots  may  be  cut  the  following  year,  but  it  is 
better  to  allow  them  two  seasons'  growth.  The  plants 
should  not  be  less  than  3  feet  apart  each  way,  and  if  the 
land  is  not  too  valuable,  they  may  stand  as  far  apart  as 
3%  or  even  4  feet.  The  "seeds"  are  really  fruits.  They 
are  ordinarily  sown  without  being  shelled.  Two  or 
more  plants  are  likely  to  come  from  each  of  these  fruits, 
all  but  one  of  which  should  be  removed.  Sea -kale  will 
retain  its  vigor  for  a  number  of  years,  but  if  the  plants 
begin  to  show  signs  of  decline,  a  new  crop  should  be 
started.  It  is  much  benefited  by  an  autumn  dressing 
of  straw  or  light  manure. 

Sea -Kale  is  Cranibe  maritima,  one  of  the  Cruciferre 
or  Mustard  family.  It  is  native  to  sea -coast  regions  of 
Western  Europe.  Sturtevant  has  an  historical  note  in 
Amer.  Nat.,  July,  1890,  pp.  644-5. 


INDEX 


Alabama,  trucking  in,  8,  10. 

Allium  Ascalonicum,  240,  316. 

Allium  Cepa,  240,  316. 

Ailium  fistulosum,  240,  316. 

Allium  Porrum,  240,  316. 

Allium  sativum.  240,  316. 

Allium  Schoenoprasum,  240,  315. 

American  Agriculturist,  quoted,  36. 

Anderson,  book  by,  245. 

Anise,  432. 

Apium  graveolens,  241,  378. 

Arkansas,  trucking  in,  10. 

Arlie,  book  by,  245,  328. 

Arsenite  of  lime,  209. 

Arthur,  on  potatoes,  304. 

Artichoke,  242,  446;  longevity  of  seeds, 
135. 

Asparagus,  242,  433;  acreage,  13;  lon- 
gevity of  seeds,  135. 

Asparajius  officinalis,  242,  440. 

Atriplex  hortensis,  241. 

Bailey,  books  by,  46,  245. 

Bailey,  on  beans,  388;  on  onions,  328; 

on  scolymus,  293;  on  tomatoes,  401; 

on  turnips,  287. 
Balm,  432. 

Barbarea  prsecox,  366. 
Barbarea  vulgaris,  241,  366. 
Barnard,  books  by,  245. 
Barrels,  220. 
Barrows,  112. 
Basil,  432. 
Baxter,  quoted,  134, 
Beadle,  book  by,  246. 
Beadle,  on  soil,  83. 
Beal,  on  peas,  132. 


Bean,  241,  383;   acreage,  13;   germina- 
tion, 134;  longevity  of  seeds,  135. 

Beckett,  book  by,  244. 

Beet,  240,  277;  acreage,  13;  longevity  of 
seeds,  135;    quantity  of  seed,  158. 

Beets,  storage,  233. 

Benincasa,  242,  422. 

Beta  vulgaris,  240,  241,  280. 

Bisulfide  of  carbon  for  seeds,  143. 

Black  salsify,  292. 

Bochove,  Van,  book  by,  246,  378. 

Books,  242. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  205,  211. 

Borecole,  241,  339. 

Bosson,  book  by,  246,  307. 

Box  for  transplanting,  192. 

Boxes,  planting  in,  62. 
•Brassica  campestris,  288. 

Brassica  oleracea,  241,  344,  345. 

Brassica  Rapa,  286. 

BrHgeman,  books  by,  246. 

Bridgeman,  on  soil,  82. 

Brill,  books  by,  171,  247,  346. 

Brill,  on  soil,  82. 

Broad  bean,  387. 

Broccoli,  241,342;  germination,  129. 

Brooklyn  market,  225. 

Brussels  sprouts,  '241,  340;  storage,  233. 

Buckman,  on  parsnip,  290. 

Buggy  peas,  132. 

Buist,  book  by,  247. 

Buist,  on  soil,  82. 

Bulb  crops,  240,  314. 

Bulletins,  264. 

Burpee,  books  by,  248,  273. 

Burr,  book  by,  239,  244,  248. 

Bushel  box,  217. 


(451 


452 


Index 


Cabbage,  241,  329,  345;  acreage,  13; 
Chinese,  352;  composition  of ,  98;  ger- 
mination, 125,  129,  151;  longevity  of 
seeds,  136;  number  in  sash,  46;  selec- 
tion of  seeds,  169. 

Cabbage  maggot,  200. 

Cabbage  storage,  233,  338. 

Cabbages,  wintering,  78. 

Canteloupe,  416. 

Cape  gooseberry,  410. 

Capital,  19. 

Capsicum  annuum,  241,  409. 

Caraway,  432. 

Carbonate  of  copper,  213. 

Carman,  book  by,  248,  309. 

Carriere,  on  carrot,  283:  on  radish,  276. 

Carrot,  210,  281;  composition  of.  98; 
germination,  152;  longevity  of  seeds, 
136;  quantity  of  seed,  158;  seeds,  124; 
storage,  233. 

Carts,  112. 

Carum  Petroselinum,  241,  369. 

Catch-crops,  93. 

Catnip,  432. 

Cauliflower,  241,  341;  germination,  151; 
longevity  of  seeds,  136;  number  in 
sash,  46;  selection  of  seeds,  169;  win- 
tering, 78. 

Celeriac,  240,  379. 

Celery,  241,  370;  acreage,  13;  germina- 
tion, 151,  152;  longevity  of  seeds,  136; 
seeds,  124;  selection  of  seeds,  169. 

Celery  storage,  229,  233. 

Cellars,  227. 

Census,  quoted,  2,  11,  12,  15. 

Chserophyllum  bulbosum,  284. 

Chard,  241,  351. 

Chervil,  salad,  369;  turnip-rooted,  284. 

Chicory,  363. 

Chinese  cabbage,  352. 

Chinese  preserving  melon,  422. 

Chives,  240,  315. 

Ciboule,  315. 

Cichorium  Endivia,  241,  363. 

Cichorium  Intybus,  364. 

Citron,  420. 


Citrullus  vulgaris,  242,  419. 

City  man's  garden,  36. 

Give,  240,  315. 

Clary,  432. 

Classification  of  crops,  238. 

Climate,  80. 

Climate  and  seeds,  129. 

Cloth  for  hotbeds,  65. 

Club  root,  34. 

Club-root  experiment,  200. 

Cobbett,  books  by,  249. 

Cochlearia  Armoracia,  240,  298. 

Coldframes,  50,  67. 

Cole  crops,  241,  329. 

Color  and  germination,  128. 

Commercial  fertilizers,  96. 

Companion-cropping,  181, 183. 

Compartment  pit,  234. 

Composts,  95. 

Condimental  plants,  242,  429. 

Copper  carbonate,  213. 

Copper  sulfate,  211. 

Coriander,  432. 

Corn,  germination,  127,  128,  131,  132, 
141;  sweet,  242. 

Corn  salad,  367. 

Corrosive  sublimate  for  potatoes,  304, 
309. 

Costmary,  432. 

Cover-crops,  93. 

Covers  for  beds,  65. 

Craig,  on  tomatoes,  397. 

Crambe  maritima,  242,  450. 

Cranefield,  on  irrigation,  175,  178. 

Cress,  241,  365. 

Crider,  book  by,  249,  378. 

Crops,  classification  of,  238. 

Crozier,  books  by,  249,  346. 

Cucumber,  241,  414;  acreage,  13;  lon- 
gevity of  seeds,  137;  seeds,  124. 

Cucumis  Anguria,  242,  415. 

Cucumis  Melo,  241,  416. 

Cucumis  sativus,  241,  415. 

Cucurbita  maxima,  421,  422. 

Cucurbita  moschata,  421,  422. 

Cucurbita  Pepo,  421,  422. 


Index 


453 


Cucurbitacse,  seeds,  124. 
Cucurbitous  crops,  241,  411. 
Cultivating,  118. 
Cultivators,  111. 
Cummins,  book  by,  249. 
Curing  seeds.  141. 
Cynara  Scolymus,  242,  449. 

Dandelion,  edible,  241,  353 

Darlington,  book  by,  249. 

Daubeny,  quoted,  134. 

Daueus  Carota,  240,  283. 

Day,  book  by,  250,  403 

Devol,  quoted,  141. 

Dibbers.  114, 189. 

Dill,  432 . 

Dish-cloth  gourd,  422. 

Dock,  edible,  242,  445. 

Dolichos  sesquipedalis,  388. 

Double-cropping,  181. 

Drainage,  85. 

Drawn  plants,  73. 

Dreer,  book  by,  46. 

Drills,  164. 

Duggar,  on  beet  diseases,  281. 

Duggar,  on  storage,  229. 

Earle,  on  tomatoes,  397,  398. 
Eggplant,  241,  403;    germination,    151; 

longevity  of  seeds,   137;  number  in 

sash,  46. 

Elder,  book  by,  250. 
Emerson,  book  by,  250. 
Endive,    241,    361;     germination,    152; 

longevity  of  seeds,  137. 
Equipment,  19. 
Exports,  17. 

Fall-sown  plants,  77. 
Farm  garden,  41. 
Fennel,  432. 
Fertilizer  tests,  100. 
Fertilizing  land,  94. 
Fessenden,  books  by,  250. 
Fitch,  book  by,  251. 
Fitz,  book  by,  251,  313. 
Flats,  62,  193. 


Florida,  trucking  in,  8. 
Flue-heated  hotbeds,  64. 
Forcing  defined,  45. 
Forcing-hill,  67,  69. 
Forks,  114. 

Formalin  for  potatoes,  304,  309. 
Formula  for  fertilizers,  104. 
Frame  defined,  46. 
Frame,  making,  50. 
Frames,  management,  72. 
Franke,  cellar  of,  230. 
Fungi,  199. 
Fungicides,  211. 

Gardiner,  book  by,  252. 

Garfield,  on  asparagus,  440. 

Garlic,  240,  314. 

Geography  of  vegetable-gardening,  6. 

Georgia,  trucking  in,  8. 

Germination,  124. 

Germination  vs.  sprouting,  149. 

Gherkin,  242,  414. 

Glass  for  gardeners,  44. 

Glazing,  64;  cost  of,  49. 

Glycine  hispida,  388. 

Goff,  on  vegetables,  276,  280,  283,  287, 

290,   328,   344,    350,  360,  377,  379,  382, 

401,  406,  415. 

Goodrich,  on  potato,  308. 
Grading,  219. 

Gray  &  Trumbull,  388,  422,  448. 
Green,  book  by,  243,  252. 
Green,  on  bushel  box,  217;  on  soil,  81; 

on  tomatoes,  398. 
Gregory,  books  by,  252,  273,  346. 
Greiner,  books  by,  243,  252,  328,  378. 
Greiner,    on   soil,   82;    quoted,  21,   28. 
Ground  cherry,  410. 
Growing  of  seeds,  165. 
Gumbo,  427. 

Hale,  census  by,  2,  12,  15. 
Half-hardy  plants,  161 . 
Halsted,  seed  samples,  144. 
Hand-box,  71. 
Hardening-off,  75. 
Hardy  plants,  161,  239. 


454 


Index 


Harris,  book  by,  253. 

Harrowing,  116. 

Harrows,  111. 

Hauck,  quoted,  37. 

Helianthus  tuberosus,  242,  448. 

Hellebore,  211. 

Henderson,  A.,  quoted,  215. 

Henderson,  books  by,  243,  253. 

Henderson  on  quantity  of  seeds,  158. 

Henderson,  Peter,  quoted,  19,  20. 

Henslow,  quoted,  134. 

Hepburn,  book  by,  254. 

Herbs,  sweet,  242,  429. 

Hibiscus  esculentus,  242,  428. 

Hicks,  quoted,  160. 

Hoeing,  119. 

Hoes.  112, 114. 

Hollister,  book  by,  254,  378. 

Hollister,  on  celery,  373;  quoted,  24. 

Holmes,  book  by,  254. 

Home  garden,  31. 

Horehound,  432. 

Horse-radish,  240,  294. 

Hose,  114. 

Hotbed  covers,  65. 

Hotbeds,  54. 

Howard,  book  by,  254. 

Humus,  93. 

Hunn,  quoted,  35. 

Huntley,  on  onions,  328. 

Husk  tomato,  241,  409. 

Hyssop,  432. 

Implements,  107. 
Imports,  17. 
Insecticides,  208. 
Insects,  199. 

Ipomoea  Batatas,  240,  312. 
Irish,  on  peppers,  409. 
Irrigation,  173. 

Jacques,  book  by,  254. 
Jager,  book  by,  171. 
Jeffries,  quoted,  30. 
Jenkins,  W.  H.,  quoted,  185. 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  242,  447. 


Kale,  241,  339;  acreage,  13;  longevity  of 

seeds,  137;  wintering,  78. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  209. 
Kiely,  P.M.,  quoted,  8. 
Kinney,  on  lettuce,  361. 
Kohlrabi,  241,  343;  longevity  of  seeds, 

137. 

Labels,  214. 

Lactuca  sativa,  241,  360. 

Lactuca  Scariola,  360. 

Landreth,  books  by,  243,  255. 

Landreth,  on  soil,  83. 

Landreth,  quoted,  22. 

Larbaletrier,  quoted,  132. 

Latitude  and  seeds,  129. 

Lavender,  432. 

Leaf -beet,  351. 

Leek,  240,  314;  longevity  of  seeds,  138: 

storage,  233. 
Leggy  plants,  73. 
Lelievre,  book  by,  255. 
Lepidium  sativum,  241,  365. 
Lettuce,    241,    357;    germination,    151; 

longevity  of  seeds,   138  ;  number  in 

sash,  46;  wintering,  78. 
Lima  bean,  385,  388. 
Lime,  arsenite  of,  209. 
Liudley,  quoted,  134. 
Livingston,  book  by,  255,  403. 
London  purple,  208. 
Longevity  of  seeds,  122,  134. 
Long  Island  wagon,  224. 
London,  quoted,  239. 
Lovage,  432. 
Luffa,  242,  422. 
Lupton,  book  by,  255,  346. 
Lycopersicum  esculentum,  241,  401. 
Lycopersicum  pimpinellifolium,  401. 

Management  of  frames,  72. 

Manure  for  heating,  56. 

Marjoram,  432. 

Market  Garden  (journal),  255. 

Market-gardeners'  private  stock,  168. 

Market-gardening,  2. 

Marketing,  214. 


Index 


455 


Market  view,  225. 

Marshall,  book  by,  256. 

Martynia,  242,  428. 

Martynia  proboscidea,  242,  428. 

Mats  for  hotbeds,  66. 

M'Mahon,  book  by,  256. 

McNeil,  book  by,  256.  j 

Medicago  lupulina  145. 

Melon,  241,  416;  acreage,  13;  longevity 
of  seeds,  138;  seeds,  124. 

Minnesota  garden,  43. 

Mitchell,  book  by,  257,  403. 

Moss,  226. 

Mucuna  utilis,  388. 

Mulch,  91. 

Munro,  book  by,  258. 

Mushroom,  242. 

Muskmelon,  241,  416;  ideal,  167;  lon- 
gevity of  seeds,  138. 

Mustard,  241,  351. 

Nageli,  quoted,  128. 
Nasturtium  officinale,  211,  365. 
Neill,  book  by,  258. 
New  Zealand  spinach,  350. 
Niven,  book  by,  258. 
Nobbe,  book  by,  171. 
Nobbe,  on  seeds,  144, 145. 
Norfolk,  capital  at,  30. 
Novelties,  195. 
Nozzles.  204. 

Oemler,  book  by,  258. 

Oemler,  on  soil,  82. 

Okra,  242,  427;  longevity  of  seeds,  138. 

Olcott,  book  by,  258. 

Onion  bed  picture,  118. 

Onion,  240,  316;  composition  of,  98; 
germination,  126,  152;  longevity  of 
seeds,  139;  selection  of  seeds,  169. 

Orach,  211,  351. 

Outfits,  24. 

Outside  cellar,  227. 

Packages,  220. 

Packing,  215,  219. 

Paillieui  &  Bois,  book  by,  244. 


Paper  for  hotbeds,  65. 

Paris  green,  208. 

Parsley,  241,  368;  longevity  of  seeds, 
139;  seeds,  124. 

JParsnip,  240,  288;  composition  of,  98; 
longevity  of  seeds,  139;  quantity  of 
seed,  158;  seeds,  124. 

Pastinaca  sativa,  240,  290. 

Pea,  241,  380;  acreage,  13,  14;  germina- 
tion, 152;  longevity  of  seeds,  139; 
quantity  of  seed,  158. 

Peas,  buggy,  132. 

Pedersen,  book  by,  258. 

Pennyroyal,  432. 

Pepper,  241,  408;  longevity  of  seeds, 
139. 

Peppermint,  432. 

Pe-tsai,  352. 

Phaseolus  lunatus,  388. 

Phaseolus  multiflorus,  387. 

Phaseolus  vulgaris,  388. 

Physalis,  241,  409. 

Physalis  Peruviana,  410. 

Physalis  pubescens,  410. 

Pie  plant,  441. 

Pipe-heated  hotbeds,  63. 

Piper  nigruin,  409. 

Pisum  arvense,  382. 

Pisum  sativum,  241,  382. 

Pit,  232. 

Plant  diseases,  205. 

Plants  for  fertilizers,  101. 

Plowing,  116. 

Plows,  111. 

Portulaca  oleracea,  241. 

Potato,  240,  301;  acreage,  13,  14;  stor- 
age, 233;  potato  sorters,  222,  223,  305, 
306. 

Pot-herb  crops,  241,  347. 

Preservation  of  seeds,  141. 

Price,  book  by,  259,  313. 

Price  of  seeds,  159. 

Principle,  discussed,  237. 

Profits,  4. 

Provancher,  book  by,  259. 

Provancher,  on  soil,  83. 


456 


Index 


Pulse  crops,  241,  380. 
Pumpkin,  242,  420;  seeds,  124. 
Pumps,  120,  203. 
Purity  of  seeds,  143. 
Purslane,  241,  354. 

Quantity  of  seed  required,  157. 
Quick  soil,  80,  85. 
Quinn,  book  by,  259 
Quinn,  on  soil,  82. 
Quinn,  quoted,  21. 

Radish,    240,    273;     germination,    151; 

longevity  of  seeds,  139,  140;  quantity 

of  seed,  158. 
Rakes,  112, 114. 
Rane,  on  storage,  235. 
Raphaiius  sativus,  240,  276. 
Rawson,  books  by,  243,  259,  378. 
Rawson,  on  soil,  82. 
Rawson,  on  sterilizing  soil,  202. 
Rawson.  quoted.  20,  29,  51. 
Resting  land,  94. 
Rheum  Rhaponticum,  242,  445. 
Rhubarb,  242,  441;  forcing,  69. 
Roberts,  on  potato,  309. 
Roberts,  on  seeds.  160. 
Roberts,  quoted,  41. 
Roe,  book  by,  260. 
Roessle,  book  by,  260,  378. 
Rogueing,  166. 
Rolfs,  book  by,  243,  260. 
Rollers,  111. 
Rolling,  119. 
Root,  book  by,  260,  403. 
Root  crops,  240,  271. 
Roots,  storage,  226,  233. 
Rosemary,  432. 
Rotation,  93. 
Round  seeds,  125. 
Rumex,  species,  446. 
Rutabaga.  240,  288. 

Sage,  432. 
Sagot,  quoted,  130. 
Salad  chervil,  369. 
Salad  crops,  241,  356. 


Salsify,  240,  291;  black,  292;  longevity 
of  seeds,  140;  quantity  of  seed,  159; 
Spanish,  293. 

Sash  defined,  46. 

Savory,  432. 

Scarifiers,  112. 

Scarlet  runner,  388. 

Schenck,  book  by,  260. 

Scolymus,  293. 

Scolymus  Hispanicus,  293. 

Scorzonera,  240,  292. 

Scorzonera  Hispanica,  240,  292. 

Sea-kale,  242,  449. 

Seedage,  account  of,  122. 

Seed-bed,  description  of,  161. 

Seed  control  stations,  144. 

Seed-drills,  164. 

Seed  farms,  15. 

Seed  growing,  165. 

Seed  sowing,  155. 

Seed  testing,  143. 

Seeds,  account  of,  122;  hotbeds,  61: 
price  of ,  159;  where  grown,  170. 

Selecting  seed  plants,  166. 

Shallot,  240,  315. 

Shaw,  on  double-cropping,  185. 

Shaw,  quoted,  43. 

Shinn,  book  by,  260. 

Shovels,  114. 

Sieva  bean,  390. 

Smith,  I.  C.,  quoted,  26. 

Smith,  J.  M.,  on  c.abbage,  330. 

Soap  insecticides,  2C9,  210. 

Soil,  discussion  of,  80. 

Solanaceous  crops,  241,  392. 

Solanum  cocciueum,  406. 

Solanum  integrifolium,  406. 

Solanum  Melongena,  241,  406. 

Solanum  tuberosum,  240,  308. 

Sorrel,  edible,  242,  445. 

Sorting,  216,  219. 

Sowing  in  hotbeds,  61. 

Sowing  of  seeds,  155. 

Spade,  114. 

Spanish  salsify,  293. 

Spearmint,  432. 


Index 


457 


Sphagnum  inoss,  226. 

Spinacea  oleracea,  241,  350. 

Spinach,  241,  347;  New  Zealand,  350. 

Spinage,  acreage,  13,  14. 

Spraying,  203. 

Spraying  machinery,  120. 

Squash,  242,  420:   longevity  of  seeds, 

140;  seeds,  124. 
Starnes,  map  of  Georgia,  7. 
Starnes,  on  watermelon,  417,  419. 
Stewart,  Henry,  book  by,  260. 
Stewart,  Homer  L.,  book  by,  261,  378. 
Storing,  214,  224. 
Storing  seeds,  130. 
Straw  mats,  66. 
Strickland,  quoted,  134. 
Sturtevant,  histories  of  vegetables,  276, 

280,   283,   290,  292,  293,  298,  308,  313, 

328,  345,  350,  361,  377,  379,  382,  388, 

401,  406,  409,   415,  417,  422,  426,  428, 

440r  445,  449,  450. 
Sturtevant,   on  germination,  128,  131, 

132,  134,  135. 
Subsoiling,  91. 
Succession-cropping,  181. 
Surface  mulch,  91. 
Swamps,  reclaimed,  81. 
Sweet  corn,  242,  423. 
Sweet  herbs,  242,  429. 
Sweet  potato,  240,  310;  acreage,  13,  14; 

composition  of,  98. 

Taft,  on  hotbeds,  60;  on  irrigation,  176. 

Tansy,  432. 

Taraxacum  officinale,  241. 

Tarragon,  432. 

Tender  plants,  161,  239. 

Terry,  book  by,  261,  309. 

Testing  seeds,  143. 

Tetragonia  expansa,  350. 

Texas,  trucking  in,  10. 

Thompson,  book  by,  261,  445. 

Thorburn,  book  by,  261. 

Threshing  and  seeds,  132. 

Thyme,  432. 

Tile  draining,  86. 


Till  ge,  87,  172. 

Tillinghast,  books  by,  261. 

Tobacco  dust,  210. 

Todd,  book  by,  262. 

Tomato,  241,  392;  acreage,  13,  14;  com- 
position of,  98;  germination,  151,  152; 
longevity  of  seeds,  140;  number  in 
sash,  46. 

Tools,  account  of,  107. 

Tools  and  equipment,  24. 

Tracy,  plan  by,  33. 

Tragopogon  porrifolius,  240,  292. 

Transplanting,  187. 

Trenching,  89. 

Trowels,  114. 

Truck  gardening,  2,  14. 

Truck  wagon,  223,  224. 

Trucks,  114. 

Tuber  crops,  240,  301. 

Turnip,  240,  285;  germination,  152; 
longevity  of  seeds,  141,  142. 

Umbelliferae,  seeds,  124. 
Unripe  seeds,  130. 

Valerianella  olitoria,  368. 

Varieties,  choosing,  194. 

Vaughan,  book  by,  262,  378. 

Vegetable  sponge,  422. 

Velvet  bean,  388. 

Ventilating  hotbeds,  75. 

Viability,  122. 

Vicia  Faba,  387. 

Vick,  book  by,  262. 

Vilmorin,  book  by,  243. 

Vilmorin,  on  carrot,  283. 

Vilmorin,  quoted,  135. 

Vine  crops,  241,  411. 

Vitality,  122. 

Voorhees,  quoted,  98,  104,  105,  272,  380. 

Wagon,  truck,  223,  224. 
Wagons,  112,  114. 
Warner,  book  by,  262. 
Washington,  advice  by,  165. 
Water  cress,  241,  365. 
Watering  hotbeds,  73. 


458 


Index 


Watermelon,  242,  417;  acreage,  13;  lon- 
gevity of  seeds,  138. 

Watson,  book  by,  262. 

Waugh,  book  by,  2G2. 

Waugh,  on  cucumber,  415;  on  salads, 
356,  363,  367. 

Wax  gourd,  242,  422. 

Weeders,  112,  114. 

Weeds,  196. 

Welsh  onion,  315. 

Whale-oil  soap,  210. 

Wheel-hoes,  112. 

White,  book  by,  262. 

White  hellebore,  211. 


Whituer,  book  by,  263. 

Wickson,  book  by,  243,  263. 

Wickson,  on  soil,  83. 

Williamson  and  Dunn,  book  by,  244. 

Windsor  bean,  387. 

Wing,  on  beans,  388. 

Winkler,  book  by,  46. 

Wintering  plants,  77. 

Wittmack,  writings  of,  388,  422 

Wormwood,  432. 

Zea  Mays,  242.  426. 
Zit-kwa,  242. 


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WORKS     BY    PROFESSOR     BAILEY 


'HE     EVOLUTION    OF    OUR    NA- 
TIVE    FRUITS.      By    L.    H.   BAILEY,    Pro- 

fessor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University. 

472    PACES— 125    ILLUSTRATIONS  — S2.OO 

In  this  entertaining  volume,  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  fruits  peculiar  to  North  America 
are  inquired  into,  and  the  personality  of  those  horti- 
cultural pioneers  whose  almost  forgotten  labors 
have  given  us  our  most  valuable  fruits  is  touched 
upon.  There  has  been  careful  research  into  the 
history  of  the  various  fruits,  including  inspection 
of  the  records  of  the  great  European  botanists  who 
have  given  attention  to  American  economic  botany. 
The  conclusions  reached,  the  information  presented, 
and  the  suggestions  as  to  future  developments,  can- 
not but  be  valuable  to  any  thoughtful  fruit-grower, 
while  the  terse  style  of  the  author  is  at  its  best  in 
his  treatment  of  the  subject. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS  discusses  The  Rise  of 
the  American  Grape  (North  America  a  Natural  Vineland,  Attempts 
to  Cultivate  the  European  Grape,  The  Experiments  of  the  Dufours, 
The  Branch  of  Promise,  John  Adlum  and  the  Catawba,  Rise  of 
Commercial  Viticulture,  Why  Did  the  Early  Vine  Experiments  Fail  ? 
Synopsis  of  the  American  Grapes) ;  The  Strange  History  of  the  Mul- 
berries (The  Early  Silk  Industry,  The  "Multicaulis  Craze,") ;  Evolu- 
tion of  American  Plums  and  Cherries  (Native  Plums  in  General, 
The  Chickasaw,  Hortulana,  Marianna  and  Beach  Plum  Groups, 
Pacific  Coast  Plum,  Various  Other  Types  of  Plums,  Native  Cherries, 
Dwarf  Cherry  Group );  Native  Apples  (Indigenous  Species,  Amelio- 
ration has  begun);  Origin  of  American  Raspberry-growing  (Early 
American  History,  Present  Types,  Outlying  Types) ;  Evolution  of 
Blackberry  and  Dewberry  Culture  (The  High-bush  Blackberry  and 
Its  Kin,  The  Dewberries,  Botanical  Names);  Various  Types  of 
Berry-like  Fruits  (The  Gooseberry,  Native  Currants,  Juneberry, 
Buffalo  Berry,  Elderberry,  High-bush  Cranberry,  Cranberry,  Straw- 
berry); Various  Types  of  Tree  Fruits  (Persimmon,  Custard-Apple 
Tribe,  Thorn-Apples,  Nut-Fruits) ;  General  Remarks  on  the  Improve- 
ment of  our  Native  Fruits  (What  Has  Been  Done,  What  Probably 
Should  Be  Done). 


T 


WORKS    BY   PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

HE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE: 

A  Collection  of  Evolution  Essays  Suggested 
by  the  Study  of  Domestic  Plants.    By  L.  H. 

BAILEY,    Professor  of    Horticulture   in   the  Cornell 
University. 

THIRD     EDITION— 515    PACES  —  2Z    ILLUSTRATIONS  —  32.00 

To  those  interested  in  the  underlying  philosophy 
of  plant  life,  this  volume,  written  in  a  most  enter- 
taining style,  and  fully  illustrated,  will  prove  wel- 
come. It  treats  of  the  modification  of  plants  under 
cultivation  upon  the  evolution  theory,  and  its  atti- 
tude on  this  interesting  subject  is  characterized 
by  the  author's  well-known  originality  and  inde- 
pendence of  thought.  Incidentally,  there  is  stated 
much  that  will  be  valuable  and  suggestive  to  the 
working  horticulturist,  as  well  as  to  the  man  or 
woman  impelled  by  a  love  of  nature  to  horticul- 
tural pursuits.  It  may  well  be  called,  indeed,  a 
philosophy  of  horticulture,  in  which  all  interested 
may  find  inspiration  and  instruction. 

THE  SURVIVAL  OP  THE  UNLIKE  comprises  thirty  essays  touching 
upon  The  General  Fact  and  Philosophy  of  Evolution  (The  Plant 
Individual,  Experimental  Evolution,  Coxey's  Army  and  the  Russian 
Thistle,  Recent  Progress,  etc.);  Expounding  the  Fact  and  Causes  of 
Variation  (The  Supposed  Correlations  of  Quality  in  Fruits,  Natural 
History  of  Synonyms,  Reflective  Impressions,  Relation  of  Seed- 
bearing  to  Cultivation,  Variation  after  Birth,  Relation  between 
American  and  Eastern  Asian  Fruits,  Horticultural  Geography,  Prob- 
lems of  Climate  and  Plants,  American  Fruits,  Acclimatization,  Sex 
in  Fruits,  Novelties,  Promising  Varieties,  etc.);  and  Tracing  the 
Evolution  of  Particular  Types  of  Plants  (the  Cultivated  Strawberry, 
Battle  of  the  Plums,  Grapes,  Progress  of  the  Carnation.  Petunia. 
The  Garden  Tomato,  etc.)- 


CYCLOPEDIA  Of 
AMERICAN  HORTICULTURE 


COMPRISING  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  HORTICULTURAL 
CROPS,  AND  ORIGINAL  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  ALL  THE  SPECIES  OF 
FRUITS,  VEGETABLES,  FLOWERS  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  KNOWN 
TO  BE  IN  THE  MARKET  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA  , 

BY  L.   H.   BAILEY 

ASSISTED   BY  MANY  EXPERT  CULTIVATORS  AND   BOTANISTS 

In  Four  Quarto  Volumes, 
Illustrated  with  over  Two  Thousand  Original  Engravings 

THIS   monumental  work,  the  most  comprehensive 
review  of  the  "vegetable  world  yet  made  by  an 
American,  is  now  in  the  press.  Though  distinctly 
an   American  work,  not    only   plants   indigenous   to 
the   North  American   continent   are   mentioned,  but 
also   all   the   species   known  to   be  in  the   horticul- 
tural  trade   in   North  America,  of  whatever  origin. 
It  is  really  a  survey  of  the  cultivated  plants  of  the 
world. 

The  Editor,  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  has  been 
gathering  material  for  this  Cyclopedia  for  many 
years.  He  has  enlisted  the  cooperation  of  many 
men  of  attainments,  either  in  science  or  practice, 
and  the  Cyclopedia  has  the  unique  distinction  of 
presenting  for  the  first  time,  in  a  carefully  arranged 
and  perfectly  accessible  form,  the  best  knowledge  of 
the  best  specialists  in  America  upon  gardening, 
fruit-growing,  vegetable  culture,  forestry,  and  the 


like,  as  well  as  exact  botanical  information.  It  is 
all  fresh,  and  not  a  rehash  of  old  material.  No 
precedent  has  been  followed ;  the  work  is  upon  its 
own  original  plan. 

Many  scientific  botanical  authors  of  justly  high 
repute  decline  to  give  attention  to  the  important 
characters  of  cultivated  plants,  confining  their  work 
to  the  species  in  the  original  forms  only.  Pro- 
fessor Bailey  takes  the  view  that  a  subject  of  com- 
mercial importance,  one  which  engages  the  attention 
and  affects  the  livelihood  of  thousands  of  bright 
people,  is  decidedly  worthy  the  investigation  of  the 
trained  botanist.  In  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture,  therefore,  very  full  accounts  are  given 
of  the  botanical  features  of  all  important  commercial 
plants,  as  the  apple,  cabbage,  rose,  etc.  At  the  same 
time,  practical  cultivators  submit  observations  upon 
culture,  marketing,  and  the  like,  and  frequently  two 
opinions  are  presented  upon  ,-the  same  subject  from 
different  localities,  so  that  the  reader  may  have 
before  him  not  only  complete  botanical  information, 
but  very  fully  the  best  practice  in  the  most  favor- 
able localities  for  the  perfection  of  any  fruit  or 
vegetable  or  economic  plant. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  pictorial  character  of  the  work  is  likewise  nota- 
ble. There  are  nearly  three  thousand  illustrations, 
and  they  are  made  expressly  for  this  work,  either 
from  accurate  photographs  or  from  the  specimens. 
These  illustrations  have  been  drawn  by  competent 


horticultural  artists,  in  nearly  every  case  under  the 
eye  of  the  Editor,  or  with  the  supervision  of  some 
one  of  the  sub-editors.  No  "trade"  cuts  are  used. 

En  planning  the  illustrations,  artistic  effect  has 
been  kept  in  view,  and  while  no  drawing  is  used 
which  does  not  show  its  subject  with  perfect  scien- 
tific accuracy,  the  monotonous  so-called  "botanical" 
outlines,  often  made  from  lifeless  herbarium  speci- 
mens, are  notably  absent.  The  intention  is  to  show 
the  life  of  the  plant,  not  merely  its  .skeleton. 

CONTRIBUTORS,  SYSTEM,  ETC. 

As  above  mentioned,  the  contributors  are  men 
eminent  as  cultivators  or  as  specialists  in  the  various 
subjects.  The  important  articles  are  signed,  and  it 
is  expected  that  the  complete  work  will  include  fully 
5,000  signed  contributions  by  horticulturists,  culti- 
vators and  bota*nists. 

The  arrangement  is  alphabetical  as  to  the  genera, 
but  systematic  in  the  species.  A  very  simple  but 
complete  plan  of  key -letters  is  used,  and  the  whole 
arrangement  is  toward  ease  of  reference  as  well  as 
completeness  of  information.  To  each  large  genus 
there  is  a  separate  alphabetic  index. 

Important  commercial  subjects  are  treated  usually 
under  the  best  known  name,  whether  it  be  the 
scientific  or  "common"  designation.  Thus,  the  apple 
is  fully  discussed  as  apple,  rather  than  as  Pynts 
Mains,  and  the  carnation  comes  into  view  in  the 
third  letter  of  the  alphabet,  not  as  Dianthus  Caryo- 
phyllus.  Carefully  edited  cross-references  make  it 


easy  to  find  any  desired  subject,  however,  in  the 
shortest  time. 

The  plan  of  presenting  the  full  details  of  cul- 
ture of  important  plants,  through  the  views  of 
acknowledged  practical  experts  upon  the  various 
subjects,  assures  the  great  value  of  the  book  to  the 
man  or  woman  who  is  obtaining  a  living  from 
horticultural  pursuits. 

A  special  feature  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture  is  its  wealth  of  bibliographic  reference. 
The  world's  horticultural  literature  has  been  thor- 
oughly searched,  and  most  carefully  indexed,  so  that 
the  student  will  find  citations  to  nearly  every  avail- 
able article  or  illustration  upon  any  subject  consulted. 

DETAILS  Of  PUBLICATION 

The  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture  is  to 
be  completed  in  four  handsome  quarto  volumes, 
embracing  about  two  thousand  pages,  with  more 
than  that  number  of  original  illustrations.  It  is 
carefully  printed  upon  specially  made  paper  of  a 
permanent  character.  The  first  volume  (A  to  D, 
509  pages,  743  illustrations,  9  plates)  and  the  second 
volume  (E  to  M,  544  pages,  710  illustrations,  10 
plates)  are  now  ready,  and  the  work  is  expected  to 
be  completed  early  in  the  year  1901. 

The  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and 
orders  will  be  accepted  for  the  full  set  only. 
Terms  and  further  information  may  be  had  of 
the  Publishers, 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

No.  66   Fifth  Avenue  NEW   YORK 


horticultural  artists,  in  nearly  every  case  under  the 
eye  of  the  Editor,  or  with  the  supervision  of  some 
one  of  the  sub-editors.  No  "trade"  cuts  are  used. 

In  planning  the  illustrations,  artistic  effect  has 
been  kept  in  view,  and  while  no  drawing  is  used 
which  does  not  show  its  subject  with  perfect  scien- 
tific accuracy,  the  monotonous  so-called  "botanical" 
outlines,  often  made  from  lifeless  herbarium  speci- 
mens, are  notably  absent.  The  intention  is  to  show 
the  life  of  the  plant,  not  merely  its  .skeleton. 

CONTRIBUTORS,  SYSTEM,  ETC. 

As  above  mentioned,  the  contributors  are  men 
eminent  as  cultivators  or  as  specialists  in  the  various 
subjects.  The  important  articles  are  signed,  and  it 
is  expected  that  the  complete  work  will  include  fully 
5,000  signed  contributions  by  horticulturists,  culti- 
vators and  botatiists. 

The  arrangement  is  alphabetical  as  to  the  genera, 
but  systematic  in  the  species.  A  very  simple  but 
complete  plan  of  key -letters  is  used,  and  the  whole 
arrangement  is  toward  ease  of  reference  as  well  as 
completeness  of  information.  To  each  large  genus 
there  is  a  separate  alphabetic  index. 

Important  commercial  subjects  are  treated  usually 
under  the  best  known  name,  whether  it  be  the 
scientific  or  "common"  designation.  Thus,  the  apple 
is  fully  discussed  as  apple,  rather  than  as  Pyrus 
Mains,  and  the  carnation  comes  into  view  in  the 
third  letter  of  the  alphabet,  not  as  Dianthus  Caryo- 
phyllus.  Carefully  edited  cross-references  make  it 


easy  to  find  any  desired  subject,  however,  in  the 
shortest  time. 

The  plan  of  presenting  the  full  details  of  cul- 
ture of  important  plants,  through  the  views  of 
acknowledged  practical  experts  upon  the  various 
subjects,  assures  the  great  value  of  the  book  to  the 
man  or  woman  who  is  obtaining  a  living  from 
horticultural  pursuits. 

A  special  feature  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture  is  its  wealth  of  bibliographic  reference. 
The  world's  horticultural  literature  has  been  thor- 
oughly searched,  and  most  carefully  indexed,  so  that 
the  student  will  find  citations  to  nearly  every  avail- 
able article  or  illustration  upon  any  subject  consulted. 

DETAILS  Of  PUBLICATION 

The  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture  is  to 
be  completed  in  four  handsome  quarto  volumes, 
embracing  about  two  thousand  pages,  with  more 
than  that  number  of  original  illustrations.  It  is 
carefully  printed  upon  specially  made  paper  of  a 
permanent  character.  The  first  volume  (A  to  D, 
509  pages,  743  illustrations,  9  plates)  and  the  second 
volume  (E  to  M,  544  pages,  710  illustrations,  10 
plates)  are  now  ready,  and  the  work  is  expected  to 
be  completed  early  in  the  year  1901. 

The  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and 
orders  will  be  accepted  for  the  full  set  only. 
Terms  and  further  information  may  be  had  of 
the  Publishers, 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

No.  66   Fifth  Avenue  NEW   YORK 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

ESSONS  WITH  PLANTS:  Sugges- 
tions for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of 
the  Common  Forms  of  Vegetation.  By  L. 

H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell 
University,  with  delineations  from  nature  by  W.  S. 
HOLDSWORTH,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Michigan. 

SECOND  EDITION— 491  PACES— 446  ILLUSTRATIONS— 1  2  MO- 
CLOTH— SI.  10  NET 

There  are  two  ways  of  looking  at  nature.  The 
old  way,  which  you  have  found  so  unsatisfactory, 
was  to  classify  everything — to  consider  leaves,  roots, 
and  whole  plants  as  formal  herbarium  specimens, 
forgetting  that  each  had  its  own  story  of  growth 
and  development,  struggle  and  success,  to  tell. 
Nothing  stifles  a  natural  love  for  plants  more  effect- 
ually than  that  old  way. 

The  new  way  is  to  watch  the  life  of  every  grow- 
ing thing,  to  look  upon  each  plant  as  a  living 
creatu-re,  whose  life  is  a  story  as  fascinating  as  the 
story  of  any  favorite  hero.  "Lessons  with  Plants" 
is  a  book  of  stories,  or  rather,  a  book  of  plays,  for 
we  can  see  each  chapter  acted  out  if  we  take  the 
trouble  to  look  at  the  actors. 

"I  have  spent  some  time  inmost  delightful  examination  of  it,  and  the 
longer  I  look,  the  better  I  like  it.  I  find  it  not  only  full  of  interest,  but 
eminently  suggestive.  I  know  of  no  book  which  begins  to  do  so  much  to 
open  the  eyes  of  the  student  —whether  pupil  or  teacher  —  to  the  wealth  of 
meaning  contained  in  simple  plant  forms.  Above  all  else,  it  seems  to  be 
full  of  suggestions  that  help  one  to  learn  the  language  of  plants,  so  they 
may  talk  to  him."—  DARWIN  L.  BARDWELL,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Bing- 
?ia>nton. 

"It  is  an  admirable  book,  and  cannot  fail  both  to  awaken  interest  in 
the  subject,  and  to  serve  as  a  helpful  and  reliable  guide,  to  young  students 
of  plant  life.  It  will,  I  think,  fill  an  important  place  in  secondary  schools, 
and  comes  at  an  opportune  time,  when  helps  of  this  kind  are  needed  and 
eagerly  sought."— Professor  V.  M.  SPAL.DING,  University  of  Michigan. 

FIRST    LESSONS    WITH    PLANTS 

An  Abridgement  of  the  above.  117  pages — 116  illustra- 
tions— 40  cents  net. 


WORKS  BY  PROFESSOR   BAILEY 


B 


OTANY :  An  Elementary  Text  for  Schools. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

355    PACES-500    ILLUSTRATIONS-SI  .10    NET 


"  This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil :  '  Lessons  With  Plants  ' 
was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  teacher."  This  is  the 
c\  ?ning  sentence  of  the  preface,  showing  that  the  book  is  a 
companion  to  "Lessons  With  Plants,"  which  has  now  become  a 
standard  teacher's  book.  The  present  book  is  the  handsomest 
elementary  botanical  text-book  yet  made.  The  illustrations 
illustrate.  They  are  artistic.  The  old  formal  and  unnatural 
Botany  is  being  rapidly  outgrown.  The  book  disparages  mere 
laboratory  work  of  the  old  kind:  the  pupil  is  taught  to  see  things 
as  they  grow  and  behave.  The  pupil  who  goes  through  this  book 
will  understand  the  meaning  of  the  plants  which  he  sees  day 
by  day.  It  is  a  revolt  from  the  dry -as -dust  teaching  of  botany. 
It  cares  little  for  science  for  science'  sake,  but  its  point  of  view 
is  nature -study  in  its  best  sense.  The  book  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  any  or  all  of  which  may  be  used  in  the  school:  the  plant 
itself;  the  plant  in  its  environment;  histology,  or  the  minute 
structure  of  plants;  the  kinds  of  plants  (with  a  key,  and  de- 
scriptions of  300  common  species).  The  introduction  contains 
advice  to  teachers.  The  book  is  brand  new  from  start  to 
finish. 

"An  exceedingly  attractive  text-book." — Educational  Review. 
"It  is  a  school  book  of  the  modern  methods."— The  Dial. 

"It  -would  be  hard  to  find  a  better  manual  for  schools  or  for  indi- 
vidual use."—  The  Outlook. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

No.  66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


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